Life course and current family factors associated with individual differences in parent–child relationships were investigated in a sample of 467 children from 192 families, including stepfather, single-parent, stepmother, and complex stepfamilies; informants were fathers, mothers, and children. Both positive and negative dimensions of father–child and mother–child relationships were linked to earlier life course experiences of parent and of partner, to current family factors, and to the quality of partner's relationship with the child. The pattern of associations between the adults' life course experiences meant that children were at risk for a “double dose” of less affectionate relationships in families in which parents had experienced early adversities. The significance of biological relatedness, family setting, and child–partner relationships was highlighted.

Children's understanding of marital conflict and the marital relationship was investigated in 60 children of 5, 7, and 9 years old. Age differences were hypothesized in four areas of children's understanding of marital conflict and the marital relationship, based on the development between 5 and 9 years of age of children's abilities to (a) analyse complex sequences of behavior in terms of the mental states of protagonists and (b) integrate multiple social roles. The four areas investigated were: conceptions of marital conflict, conflict resolution, family triangulation, and integration of the spousal and parental roles. Children were read stories involving family interactions. Open-ended questions were asked about their understanding of these interactions and a coding scheme was devised that reflected theoretical concepts. Nine-year-olds differed from 5-year-olds on all aspects of their understanding of marital conflict and the marital relationship, and 7-year-olds showed levels of understanding between 5- and 9-year-olds. Younger children were less likely than older children to explain marital conflict in terms of the divergent goals of each parent, to understand conflict resolution as dependent on one person changing their beliefs or goals, to understand that parents were simultaneously spouses and parents and to understand the nature of triangulation. Marital conflict is interpreted very differently by children of different ages.

Links between sibling relationships, mother–partner, and parent–child relationships were studied in a longitudinal community sample of 3681 sibling pairs. Individual differences in sibling relationship quality were related to mother–partner affection and hostility assessed 4 years earlier, to contemporary parent–child negativity, and to indices of social adversity. Evidence for both direct and indirect pathways (via parent–child relations) linking mother–partner and sibling relations were found. Comparisons of prediction for non-stepfamilies and stepfather families showed similarities in patterns of association, but also differences: In stepfather families, mother–partner hostility was unrelated to parent–child negativity and sibling relationship quality. Both positivity and negativity towards young siblings decreased with the age of older siblings, and older sisters were more positive than older brothers.

This study examined whether the link between marital conflict management style and child conduct problems with peers and parents is direct or mediated by mothers' and fathers' parenting style (critical parenting and low emotional responsivity). One hundred and twenty children, aged 4 to 7 years, were observed interacting in our laboratory playroom solving a problem with their best friend as well as at home with their parents. In addition, all the children's parents were observed in our laboratory trying to solve two family problems as well as at home interacting under more natural conditions with each other and with their children. Mothers and fathers completed questionnaires assessing marital problem solving as well as reports of their children's behavior problems. Results indicated that a negative marital conflict management style had direct links with children's conduct problems. In addition, the linkage between negative marital conflict management and children's interactions with parents and peers was found to be mediated by both mothers' and fathers' critical parenting and low emotional responsivity, thereby supporting the indirect as well as the direct model of negative family interactions. The findings are discussed in relation to the implications for treatment.