The alien cynipid wasp Dryocosmus kuriphilus Yasumatsu, 1951 is a serious pest of chestnuts (Castanea spp.) in Japan, North America and Europe, causing fruit losses while inducing galls in buds. While D. kuriphilus galls have a recognizable and roughly invariable globular shape, their size varies, reaching up to 4 cm in diameter. Among other factors, such variation may depend on different climatic conditions in different attacked areas. Here, we sampled and measured 375 D. kuriphilus galls from 25 localities throughout the Iberian Peninsula, including both cold and rainy northern (Eurosiberian) areas and warm and dry central-southern (Mediterranean) areas, to test the effects of climate and geographical location on gall morphology. The analyses indicate that gall mass and volume follow a pattern that can be associated with a climatic cline. In particular, the Eurosiberian galls were smaller than the Mediterranean galls according to differences in climatic conditions. In the southern areas, the greater insolation regime does not allow the chestnut trees to be distributed at lower altitudes, but the high rainfall and humidity regime of the mountain enclaves allow their presence. These conditions of insolation and precipitation seem to influence the morphological characteristics of the galls of D. kuriphilus.

Gall-making Cynipidae manipulate the leaves of host plant to form galls where offspring find shelter and food. The relationship between oak gallwasp and biochemical mechanisms of galls still requires a better understanding. So, in this research, protein and phenolic compound contents, as well as the activity of antioxidative enzymes and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins were determined. Galls caused by asexual generation of Cynips quercusfolii L., Neuroterus numismalis (Fourc.) and N. quercusbaccarum L., as a model were used. All cynipid species modified the protein levels of gall tissues, but they cannot be treated as protein sinks. Significantly higher levels of phenols were observed in the galled leaves and galls of all cynipid species when compared with the control tissues. Peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase activity was usually low or showed no activity in galled tissues of all species. PR proteins, such as chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase, had a similar activity profile. Their activity significantly increased in the leaves with galls of all cynipid species, especially those infested with C. quercusfolii. Data generated in this study clearly indicate that galling Cynipidae manipulate the biochemical machinery of the galls for their own needs. However, the pattern of the biochemical features of leaves with galls and galled tissues depends on gall-making species.

A survey was conducted at 88 sites in Montana in 1984 and 1985 to determine the distribution of Urophora affinis Frauenfeld and U. quadrifasciata (Meigen), two seed head flies released on spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa Lam. # CENMA) in North America. U. affinis, released in Montana during 1973 to 1977, was found at 40 of the 88 sites. The fly was concentrated within a short radius (about 5 to 8 km) of release sites, even at sites having well-established populations. U. quadrifasciata, released in British Columbia in 1972, but not in the United States, was found at 84 sites. The data suggest that the fly entered the state in the northwest corner and dispersed in a southeasterly direction. There was a strong positive relationship between mean number of galls per seed head and percent infestation for both fly species.

Tremella cetrariicola is shown to be heterogeneous and to represent two phylogenetic sister species, which are shown here to be distinct in the morphology of the galls, basidia and basidiospores, and in their host selection. Tremella cetrariicola s. str. is confined to Tuckermannopsis, whilst the material on Cetrariella delisei is described here as the new Tremella cetrariellae. The new species is known from Finland, Greenland, Norway, Russia, Svalbard, and Sweden.

In this study, we determined the effects of plant richness, total plant abundance and abundance of plants with high galling diversity (super-hosts) on the local and regional galling richness in 15 areas of Neotropical savanna in different parts of Brazil. We established in each area 10 plots of 10 × 10 m, where we sampled a total of 131 plant species and 112 galling insect species. We considered all areas at the regional level and plots within each area at the local level. We found that at the regional level a combination of plant richness and plant abundance is the best model to explain the gall-inducing richness. We also found that at the local scale the most important factors are plant abundance and super-host abundance, but the plant richness is irrelevant. These findings confirm recent results that plant richness is an important predictor of galling species richness at the regional level, whereas the vegetation composition and structure act at the local level. Furthermore, this study contributes to the knowledge of the ecology of galling by showing how local factors influence the richness of this insect guild.

Three new species of braconid wasps from Costa Rica are described here: Allorhogas crinitus reared from leaf galls on Protium panamense (Burseraceae), Allorhogas lacuna reared from galls on Melastomataceae and Allorhogas triopsis reared from fruit galls on Psychotria (Rubiaceae). These new species are diagnosed and compared with other species in the genus. These are the first records of an Allorhogas species associated with the plant families Burseraceae and Rubiaceae. It is the third association of Allorhogas with the family Melastomaceae.

A new plant-feeding species of braconid wasp Allorhogas minimus Centrella & Shaw is described from Heredia Province in Costa Rica. The new species is diagnosed and compared with other species in the genus. This is the first record of an Allorhogas species from fruit galls on Miconia longifolia.

A sample of 1834 leaves from 83 plants in 26 families was collected in tropical rain forest in Madagascar from three vertical strata: top of emergent trees (up to 37 m), top of trees in upper canopy (about 22 m), and shrubs and saplings at ground level. These leaves were examined for damage by seven different agents: fungi, epiphyllae, mechanical injury, galls, leaf miners, grazing insects and skeletonizing insects. Fungi affected more than 60% of the leaves and grazing insects 45–65%, with other agents each affecting 3–30%; fewer than 4% of the leaves escaped unscathed by any agent. Individual leaves were attacked by up to five agents. There was a sharp decline in proportion of leaves affected by fungi, leaf miners, epiphyllae and mechanical breakage with increasing category of severity. Grazing insects, mechanical injury, and perhaps galls, had greater impact at ground level than in the canopy, with fungi and skeletonizing insects showing the opposite pattern. Leaf miners had lower incidence in the canopy than elsewhere. The observed vertical stratification means that a tree not only needs to balance its defences to meet multiple threats in any stratum, but must adapt to a different suite of challenges during its lifetime. Attack by grazing insects and fungi are major challenges for saplings at ground level, but with increasing height above the ground fungal attack on leaves becomes more prevalent, but attack by grazing insects less so.

Comments on and a key to the 13 Polycoccum species known in Spain are presented, including synopses of their world distributions. Amongst these is P. rubellianae sp. nov., a lichenicolous fungus growing on thalli of Caloplaca rubelliana in eastern Spain (Valencia). It has relatively small ascomata, the lower part pale brown, and also small ascospores which are coarsely verrucose and have a thick gelatinous sheath when young. The new species is associated with a Phoma-like anamorph. The identity and systematic position of P. opulentum requires further study as the name has been applied to different species, and the occurrence of P. marmoratum in Spain is in need of confirmation. The Spanish record of P. arnoldii on Lecania cyrtella probably refers to another yet undescribed species.