The main idea behind this chapter is that the research on deliberately learning vocabulary shows that it is such an efficient and effective way of learning that, in terms of speed of vocabulary growth, a course that includes both incidental learning from communication-focused activities and deliberate learning will be much better than a course that relies only on incidental learning. Moreover, flash-card learning should be done so that the vocabulary worked on is repeatedly met until it is thoroughly learned. This goal of a high level of knowledge contrasts with the uncertain learning that occurs through other activities. Deliberately learning vocabulary before it is met in communication-focused activities means that the difficulty of such activities is reduced. Deliberately learning vocabulary after it has been met in a communication-focused activity means that the deliberate learning will be more meaningful and motivated. This chapter describes a list of well-supported guidelines for learning using flash cards. These principles should also be used in electronic flash-card programs.

The chapter focuses on the role of developmental readiness and proficiency as two variables that, on the one hand, mediate the effectiveness of corrective feedback (CF), and, on the other, can serve as outcome measures in order to determine these effects. In the first part, the two constructs are defined and their relationship to explicit and implicit, or highly automatized, knowledge of the target language is illuminated. This is followed by a succinct overview of empirical studies that have investigated the ways in which developmental readiness and proficiency mediate the effects of different types of CF as well as a critical evaluation of the available body of research with respect to its foci and methodology. Subsequently, emphasis is shifted to the value of the two constructs for everyday teaching practice and an argument is made that it is proficiency rather than developmental readiness that has far more pedagogical relevance and can therefore better inform decisions concerning the provision of CF in the classroom.

In this chapter we discuss the qualitative difference between explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge (underlying mental representation). The chapter focuses on whether instruction affects the latter. We review the accepted finding that instruction does not affect ordered development. We also review the issue of whether instruction affects rate of development and ultimate attainment. We look at important variables in the research on instructed acquisition, including type of knowledge measured, the nature of assessments used in the research, and short-term vs. long-term studies, among others.

In this chapter we address the question of whether or not language acquisition is largely implicit in nature. After reviewing key constructs (e.g., explicit and implicit knowledge, explicit and implicit processing/learning, intentional and unintentional learning), we discuss the major positions currently under scrutiny in the field: (1) explicit learning is necessary; (2) explicit learning is beneficial; (3) explicit learning does little to nothing (i.e., acquisition is largely if not exclusively implicit in nature). A key issue in this chapter is how one defines “language” and how one construes “input processing.” We will review how definitions of these constructs color the researcher’s perspective on the issues.