The multimedia principle is that people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone. For example, a multimedia lesson consists of an animation depicting the steps in lightning formation along with concurrent narration describing the steps in the lightning formation, whereas a single-medium lesson consists of narration alone. Based on research carried out by myself and my colleagues, in 13 out of 13 tests, learners who received text and illustrations or narration and animation (dual representation group) performed better on transfer tests than did learners who received text alone or narration alone (single representation group), with a median effect size of d = 1.35.

Feedback is widely considered an effective instructional technique that improves learning outcomes across a variety of multimedia learning environments, including interactive lessons, educational games, and simulations. The effectiveness of feedback depends on a number of factors, and in this chapter we focus on the content of the feedback message and compare corrective and explanatory feedback. Corrective feedback informs learners whether they were right or wrong, and explanatory feedback provides learners with an explanation for why their response was correct or incorrect. The feedback principle states that novices learn better with explanatory feedback than corrective feedback alone. In this chapter, we present evidence concerning the feedback principle, discuss boundary conditions that can limit its effectiveness, and explore adaptive training as an approach to mitigate some of these boundary conditions.

A fundamental hypothesis underlying research on multimedia learning is that multimedia instructional messages that are designed in light of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that are not. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning is based on three cognitive science principles of learning: the human information processing system includes dual channels for visual/pictorial and auditory/verbal processing (i.e., dual channels assumption), each channel has limited capacity for processing (i.e., limited capacity assumption), and active learning entails carrying out a coordinated set of cognitive processes during learning (i.e., active processing assumption).

Cognitive load theory (CLT) and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) offer empirically supported instructional solutions to the frequent problem of cognitive overload during learning from multimedia materials. Until recently, these solutions have relied completely on instructors creating high quality learning materials and learners having access to those materials. However, in practice learners frequently have to deal with digital and printed multimedia learning materials that have not been designed with any consideration of cognitive load. The self-management principle has emerged from research using the vantage point of the learner, and is based on empowering learners to apply CLT or CTML principles themselves to manage their own cognitive load. In this chapter we present the rationale for the principle, empirical evidence, and theoretical and practical implications.