A diversity of filamentous microfungi was discovered from thallus surfaces of epiphytic lichens preserved in Bitterfeld and Baltic amber. We report seven distinct morphologies of dematiaceous hyphomycetes, some of which closely resemble species of the extant genera Sporidesmium, Taeniolella s. lat. and Taeniolina. Both the placement of the fungi on their substrates and the exquisite preservation of delicate structures indicate that the fungi were fully developed before they were engulfed by fresh resin. The lichens probably grew on the trunks of resin producing trees and became embedded in resin flows together with their fungal associates. The findings demonstrate that a wide range of presumably specialised fungi have lived on living and decomposing lichen thalli at least since the Paleogene. The findings add an interesting new component to the as yet poorly known mycota of the ancient European amber forests.

Soilborne plant pathogens cause major economic losses in agricultural crops, and the present methods for control of diseases brought about by these pathogens are inadequate. Alternatives are also needed to substitute for the use of chemical fungicides. Many of these are known to induce tumors in experimental animals and are thus regarded by some investigators as potential human carcinogens when present as residues in food and water. In addition, such alternative control measures are needed because of the potential threat of development of resistance to fungicides, especially systemic fungicides, by fungal plant pathogens, and because of nontarget side effects on other plant pathogens and on beneficial microorganisms. Alternative disease control is sometimes possible through development of crop plants resistant to disease. Unfortunately, however, resistance is lacking or not available for many diseases caused by soilborne plant pathogens. Another biological means of controlling disease which is presently gaining much attention is biological control. Several systems of biological control are presently being explored and may be developed in a few years into reliable alternatives to conventional chemical control methods. The use of the mycoparasite Sporidesmium sclerotivorum, for example, against several diseases caused by Sclerotinia species is promising. Talaromyces flavus may in the future be exploited for use against several wilt diseases caused by Verticillium dahliae. Finally, practical control of several diseases caused by Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani, and Sclerotium rolfsii may eventually become possible through the use of Trichoderma spp. and Gliocladium virens. Development of these biological control systems will require much additional research directed toward a better understanding of the basic biology and mechanisms of action of beneficial fungi against plant pathogens. In addition, extensive cooperation will be required among research scientists, governmental agencies responsible for regulating the use of pestcontrol systems, and most importantly, private industry to develop biological control agents for the market and to coordinate acceptance and use by producers and acceptance by consumers.