Chapter 4: Cognitive Issues in Reading. Underlying cognitive skills that support reading include the following: Implicit and explicit learning, frequency of experience with language, automaticity, statistical knowledge and statistical learning, associative learning and emergence (analogy), real-time processing skills (inhibition control, eager processing, predictive processing), speed of processing, the use of background knowledge, conceptualization and categorization, motivation and engagement, and contextual processing. Underlying cognitive skills are the keys to language learning and reading development. Specific concepts addressed include now-or-never processing, chunk-and-pass processing, connectionism, Rapid Automatic Naming (RAN), long-term memory and background knowledge, the several roles of context effects on reading, and semantic priming. The chapter concludes with implications for instruction.

Akira Kurosawa spent fifty years, from 1943 to 1993, making films that attempt to look at life and its complexity ‘straight on’, in an unflinching, uncompromising way. However, none of his films forces us to stare into the potential for humans to create hell on earth quite as formidably as one of his final masterpieces, Ran (1985). This chapterfocuseson Kurosawa’s troubled humanism, alongside his didacticism. It is no accident that three such Kurosawa films are his adaptations of Shakespeare tragedies: Throne of Blood, The Bad Sleep Well (1960) and Ran, adaptations of Macbeth, Hamlet and King Lear, respectively. Kurosawa uses Ran to express his belief in the compelling need for individuals to transcend the unending cycles of violence that plague this world, rather than embrace the dubious otherworldly salvation provided by supernatural powers, such as Amida Buddha, who appears as a helpless symbol in Ran. The film is a majestic pageant full of symbols and abstractions – including many elements of the Buddhist Noh theatre – which ironically signify unity and harmony in a collapsing world where icons have lost their power to cohere. Ran, in all its beauty and horror, tells us that we have the power to face the inevitable hells on earth and choose not to perpetuate them.