Natural law and natural rights are contested categories among many modern Protestants, but were common legal and theological topics for their sixteenth-century forebearers. Early Protestant reformers echoed classical and scholastic teachings, and their natural law principles and natural rights overlapped with Catholic, humanist, and republican formulations in their day. But the reformers grounded their teachings in distinct accounts of the created order, human nature, the Ten Commandments, law and Gospel, divine sovereignty and natural order in the two kingdoms - giving their views a unique accent. This chapter samples the natural law and rights teachings of Martin Luther, Philip Melanchthon, the Magdeburg Confession, John Calvin, Christopher Goodman, and Johannes Althusius. They illustrate the hundreds of Protestant sources, by Lutherans and Calvinists, Anabaptists and Anglicans of various denominations. These teachings were a driving force of early modern Western democratic revolutionaries on both sides of the Atlantic; and influential in modern international declarations of rights, in the civil rights movement in the United States, and in various liberation movements in the Global South.

This chapter contrasts a traditional Protestant understanding of justifying faith as responding to God’s act of reconciliation with an argument for understanding Pauline faith as eschatological trust. The argument focuses on an exegesis of Romans 4. This latter interpretation opens up new vistas on the Pauline implicit narrative substructure as it tells the story of the work of Christ, the community of faith, and the course of history.

Philip Melanchthon is undoubtedly one of the most significant figures to emerge from the Reformation. However, his legacy is frequently overshadowed by Martin Luther and John Calvin – in large part because of his close relationship with both. Because of this, Melanchthon has infrequently been the focus of historical research, functioning much more frequently as a footnote to Luther or a sounding board for Calvin. Yet Melanchthon’s work and writings shaped the religious landscape of Europe and he left an indelible influence on both Lutheranism and the Reformed tradition – particularly through his biblical scholarship and Loci Communes. The overlooking of Melanchthon is, to some extent, explained by the final years of his life, during which he was almost universally disdained for his perceived betrayal of Lutheran principles at the Leipzig Interim. Because of this, Melanchthon has frequently been disregarded or maligned in confessional histories of Lutheranism and the Reformed faith. In more recent years, however, the significance of Melanchthon’s Loci Communes, his contributions to early modern biblical scholarship, his role in the political developments of the German Reformation, and his relationship with Calvin have come to be recognized as formative influences on the history of the early modern world.