Meat from low-volume farm animals such as farmed deer and wild boar is currently widely available to the consumer within the UK. Despite a rapid growth in production of these species there is a paucity of research that focuses on their welfare. This paper reviews the current literature and legislation relating to the transport and slaughter of farmed deer, wild boar, ostriches, buffalo and bison in order to identify priorities for future research. Research on low-volume farm animals has focused on red deer and their welfare is safeguarded with comprehensive legislation and guidelines. Studies have indicated the importance of appropriately designed facilities and sympathetic handling of red deer to ensure humane slaughter with minimal stress. However, the impact of transport and slaughter on the welfare of other deer species has not been recorded and this should be recognised. Much research has been conducted on the welfare of ostriches during transport and at slaughter. However, many of the results are discordant and research is required to clarify, in particular, posture during transport and stunning methods. Research on the welfare of wild boar, buffalo and bison is scarce. Best practice for both transport and slaughter of these species needs further research and clarification within legislation. For the low-volume species discussed in this review, priorities for further research include (1) appropriate methods of handling to minimise stress during transport and slaughter; (2) identification/clarification of appropriate slaughter methods and (3) training of transport and abattoir personnel in handling and slaughter methods.

Welfare is being promoted as a reason why ostriches should not be kept on farms in Europe. It is reasoned that the climate, particularly during winter, is unsuitable for these birds despite there being little scientific evidence to support this claim. This study recorded the frequency of behaviours of male and female adult ostriches kept on a farm in Britain during the spring of 1996. ‘Rainy’, ‘dull and dry’, ‘bright and dry’, and ‘sunny’ weather categories were used to assess the influence of climate on behaviour. Six main behaviours (sitting, standing, pacing, walking, foraging and feeding) were observed together with a variety of low frequency ‘other’ behaviours which were combined for analysis. Gender had no significant effect on any of the behaviour frequencies. During ‘rainy’ periods both males and females showed sitting behaviour five times more than during ‘dull’ and ‘bright’ weather and two and a half times more than during ‘sunny’ weather. Increased sitting behaviour during rainy periods was due to a significant reduction in pacing and ‘other’ behaviours with no significant effect on feeding and foraging behaviours. Sitting during sunny weather also occurred more often than during dull and bright weather but not at the expense of any other particular behaviour. Adult ostriches in Britain alter their behaviour in response to prevailing weather conditions, particularly rain.

Commercially reared ostrich chicks are typically kept in barren, indoor environments. This experiment investigated the effects of environmental enrichment on the pecking behaviour, exploration, food consumption and novelty responses of ostrich chicks aged 10 to 21 days. Four groups of 20 randomly selected ostrich chicks were housed in heated huts at one day of age (Day 1), and at Day 10 were allowed access to sand-covered areas (30 m2) that were either barren (control: n = 2 groups) or enriched with cabbage, coniferous cones and sticks (enriched: n = 2 groups). Pecking behaviour was recorded by focal sampling the behaviour of five chicks per group for four 5 min periods per day on Day 10 and Day 13. All enriched chicks pecked at the cabbage, of which they consumed considerable amounts (26 ± 3 g/chick/day). The enriched chicks did not have higher overall pecking frequencies but tended to peck less at fixtures in the pen, compared to control chicks. Additionally, the enriched chicks showed increased exploration in terms of the percentage of chicks observed outside the heated huts. In a novel object test, enriched chicks stayed closer to and delivered more pecks at sorrel (Rumex acetosa) than did control chicks, whereas there was no difference between the treatment groups in their response to adult ostrich feathers. Enriched chicks consumed more food (79 ± 0.4 g/chick/day) than did control chicks (67 ± 09 g/chick/day) during the experimental period. We suggest that environmental enrichment improves the welfare of ostrich chicks in terms of increasing exploration and reducing pecking at fixtures in the pen, without compromising food consumption.

Ostrich welfare on farms of is great importance, particularly because little is known about appropriate husbandry conditions for these birds in a northern European environment. Rain has been shown to influence the pattern of behaviour during the spring months. This study examined the effects of four different climatic conditions (raining, dull but overcast, bright but overcast and sunny) on the behaviour of ostriches during the winter. Compared with dry conditions, there was a significantly higher rate of sitting during rainy periods — apparently at the expense of foraging (from pasture) and pacing (around the perimeter). The rate of sitting was much lower than that reported for the same birds during rain in the spring. During all climatic conditions, feeding (on concentrate feed provided) and foraging were the most dominant behaviours. Feeding was not significantly affected by rain but the frequency of foraging was reduced. Standing was a common behaviour. There were significant gender differences for standing (males > females) and foraging (females > males). These results show that winter conditions require ostriches to feed and forage at higher rates than during the spring or summer, presumably to consume more energy for thermoregulation. Gender differences in pacing and feeding behaviours previously observed in breeding birds were absent in non-breeding ostriches (presumably because males were not defending territories); although non-breeding males appeared to be more vigilant than females and needed to consume more food. Improvements in ostrich husbandry should take into account the need to provide both adequate shelter and more concentrate rations during the cold weather of winter. Energy requirements will be higher at this time, yet the ability of the birds to forage will be diminished. Without such considerations, ostrich welfare during the winter in northern Europe will be compromised.

There are very few abattoirs in North America that process ostriches (Struthio camelus) which means producers are forced to transport their birds over long distances (> 500 km) for processing. The objectives of this research were to investigate the effects of pre-transport nutrient supplementation and transport duration on ostrich bodyweight and blood biochemistry. A total of 45 ostriches were used in three transport trials with driving durations of 30 min (n = 10), 7 h (n = 11) and 18 h (n = 24). Birds were weighed and blood sampled (10 ml) before and after transport. There were two treatment groups in each trial: control (n = 22) and nutrient-supplemented (n = 23). Prior to transport, each bird in the nutrient-supplement group was tube-fed 1 L of liquid nutrient supplement (containing water, dextrose, protein, and electrolytes), and control birds were each tube-fed 1 L of water. The results of our study showed that birds which were shipped for 18 h lost the most bodyweight while birds transported for 7 h lost more weight than those transported for 30 min. Birds which were transported for a longer time also had higher post-transport concentrations of plasma glucose, creatine phosphokinase, aspartate aminotransferase, total protein and uric acid. Male birds which received nutrient supplement lost less weight compared to the male control birds. We concluded that under the present shipping conditions, long distance transportation is detrimental to ostrich welfare with significant loss to producers due to mortalities and shrinkage. Our results also indicated that the use of pre-transport nutrient supplementation can partially alleviate the effect of the transportation stress.

Ostrich skin when tanned forms distinctive and exclusive leather which is much sought after in the fashion industry. Promotion and marketing are focused on its distinctive quill pattern, durability and suppleness. The leather commands a high price by comparison with other livestock leather. The industry in southern Africa is currently export focused with the highest number of tanned skins being exported from South Africa principally to Japan. There are currently many debates on the optimum age for slaughter, skin size being dependent on buyer demand. Skins are subjected to strict grading criteria. Many factors need to be considered to maximise skin yield and quality including adequate nutrition, preventing on-farm scarring and bruising during transport, preventing feather pecking and treating birds for parasitic and arthropod infestations. Stringent conditions during the processing of the skins at the abattoirs and tanneries are crucial in preventing damage and subsequent downgrading. Environmental impacts of tanning are crucial and harmful by- products, including trivalent chromium, must be extracted from the effluent. The establishment of a strategy that ensures improvements in both the local ostrich and skin industry, and in the export market is necessary if southern Africa is to become a global player.

Ostrich production is highly management intensive. The ability to sustain long term profitability is dependent upon the use of strict management techniques by the producer and his workforce. Important factors include those favouring maximisation of production, elimination of disease, reduction in transport and abattoir damage, and minimising feed costs. Given the rise in the global competitiveness of the ostrich industry, the implementation of best practices on the farm is vital if the producer is to remain viable.

Ostrich chick production is highly management intensive. An artificial production system should be able to provide adequate protection to ostrich chicks up to four weeks of age. Factors influencing the successful growth of chicks include the provision of proper housing, adequate ventilation, exemplary hygiene and correct dietary requirements. Inadequate nutrition is commonly the cause of microbial infections. It is important for the producer to do an accurate on-farm cost management appraisal, the greatest variable production cost being feed. There is need to generate more finance for further research on ostrich chicks, and the development of an integrated system between producers, ostrich producer associations and industry in order to maximise productivity and economies of scale.

Ostrich meat may be consumed as a healthy alternative to beef. The establishment of ostrich farming systems is not sufficient to satisfy consumer demand without the use of a successful production and marketing strategy. Given the current export driven nature of the industry in Southern Africa and the need for the development of a domestic market, a good understanding of the position of ostrich meat in the marketing mix and the key elements in meat processing is necessary.

The physical characteristics and chemical composition of ostrich eggs are reviewed in the process of investigating their suitability for table consumption. Some comparisons are made between ostrich eggs and those of other avian species, and it is concluded that their physical appearance may make them attractive to consumers. The extremely strong shells of ostrich eggs make them very resistant to breakage during handling and transportation, while also serving as a basis for the making of curios. The limited data available indicate that the contents of ostrich eggs is similar to that of other avian species in terms of the proportion of main components and chemical composition. Although the production of fresh ostrich eggs for consumption is currently not seen as having great potential, there appears to be no reason why those not used as hatching eggs should not be utilized for table consumption.