We use PRISM climatic data (1981–2010) and Landsat images (2012–2013) to establish an empirical relationship linking annual temperature and precipitation to the equilibrium line altitude (ELA) of glaciers in the Sierra Nevada (36–41°N, California, USA). For this, we determined the present-day ELAs of 57 glaciers and the local 0°C isotherms elevation Iso0, averaged over the 1981–2010 period. The difference, for each glacier, is Y, the normalized snowline altitude (Y = ELA – Iso0). We then empirically calibrated a logarithmic relationship between this normalized snowline altitude and mean annual precipitation using data from partially covered glaciers. Our calibration is statistically distinct from that previously established for the tropical and midlatitude Andes (Fox and Bloom [1994], Journal of Geography (Chigaku Zasshi), 103, 867–885; Condom et al. [2007], Global and Planetary Change, 59, 189–202). This new relationship for North America is an easy-to-use tool to permit paleoclimatic reconstructions from paleo-ELAs. For a specific paleoglacial site, paleotemperature can be computed knowing the paleoprecipitation range, and vice versa. We also performed a test showing that, if precipitation is well known, the uncertainty associated with paleotemperature is about 1°C (1σ).

In this study, we compare equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) calculated using the area–altitude balance ratio (AABR) and the accumulation–area ratio (AAR) methods, with measured ELAs derived from direct field observations. We utilise a GIS toolbox to calculate the ELA for 64 extant glaciers by applying the AABR and AAR methods to DEMs and polygons of their geometry. The calculated ELAs (c-ELAs) are then compared to measured zero-net balance ELAs (znb-ELAs) obtained from mass-balance time series held by the WGMS for the same glaciers. The correlation between znb-ELAs and AABR (1.56)/AAR (0.58) c-ELAs is very strong, with an r2 = 0.99. The smallest median difference between znb-ELAs and c-ELAs (i.e. 65.5 m) is obtained when a globally representative AABR of 1.56 is used. When applied to palaeoglacier-climate applications, this difference translates to ~0.42°C, well within the uncertainty of palaeotemperature proxies used to determine mean summer temperature at the ELA. The more widely used mean AABR of 1.75 is shown to be statistically invalid due to the skewness of the dataset. On this basis, when calculating glacier ELAs, we recommend the use of a global AABR value of 1.56.

In the eastern Carpathians the legacy of glaciation is preserved in several isolated mountain massifs. This paper presents new mapping results of glaciated valley land systems in the Rodna Mountains, the highest part of the eastern Carpathians (2303 m above seal level). In most of the glacial valleys, the maximal Pleistocene extent is marked by freshly shaped moraines, which are referred in this study as the Pietroasa glacial stage and regarded as the last glacial maximum (LGM) advance. Only in three valleys do older Şesura glacial stage moraines (pre-LGM, likely Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 6) occur. On the basis of the geomorphological record, we reconstruct the extent, surface geometry, and equilibrium line altitude (ELA) of Pietroasa-stage glaciers. The local ELA pattern of north-exposed glaciers in the Rodna Mountains shows a rising trend towards the southeast, which suggests dominant snow-bearing winds and orographically induced precipitation from the west. This finding fits well with the dominant palaeo-wind direction inferred from other Carpathian proxies and confirms the dominance of zonal circulation pattern during the global LGM in central eastern Europe.

Glacial extent mapping and dating indicate that the local last glacial maximum (LLGM) of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau occurred during mid-Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3. This is asynchronous with the global last glacial maximum (LGM) that occurred during MIS 2. The causes underlying this asynchronicity are the subject of ongoing debate, and paleoclimatic reconstructions are a key to advancing understanding of the climatic influence on the spatial and temporal patterns of paleoglaciation. We used multiple methods to reconstruct the equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) of the Die Shan paleo-ice cap on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, and to infer past temperature for ice maximum positions believed to be mid-MIS 3 in age, based on regional correlation. Geomorphic ELA reconstructions combined with an energy and mass balance model yield a paleo-ELA of 4117±31 m asl (786 m lower than present) with temperature depressions of 3.8 to ~4.6°C compared to the present. This is less than the LGM reconstruction of temperature depression inferred from other climatic proxy records on the Tibetan Plateau and suggests that the LLGM glacial advance was a product of lower temperatures and slightly reduced precipitation compared to present, whereas the LGM was a more restricted advance in which much colder conditions were combined with much lower precipitation.

Three glacial stages (Deshkit 1, Deshkit 2 and Dishkit 3 glacial stages) are identified in the Nubra and Shyok valleys in northernmost Ladakh, northwest India, on the basis of geomorphic field mapping, remote sensing, and 10Be terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide surface exposure dating. The glacial stages date to ∼ 45 ka (Deshkit 1 glacial stage), ∼ 81 ka (Deshkit 2 glacial stage) and ∼ 144 ka (Deshkit 3 glacial stage). A mean equilibrium line altitude depression of ∼ 290 m for the Deshkit 1 glacial stage was calculated using the area accumulation ratio, toe-to-headwall ratio, area–altitude, and area–altitude balance ratio methods. Comparison of glaciation in the Nubra and Shyok valleys with glaciations in the adjacent Central Karakoram of northern Pakistan and northern side of the Ladakh Range of northern India indicates that glaciation was synchronous on Milankovitch timescales across the region during MIS-6, but differed greatly in extent, with more extensive glaciation in the Karakoram than the morphostratigraphically equivalent glaciation on the northern slopes of the Ladakh Range. This highlights the strong contrast in the extent of glaciation across ranges in the Himalaya–Tibetan orogen, necessitating caution when correlating glacial successions within and between mountain ranges.

Numerous cirques of the Lofoten–Vesterålen archipelago in northern Norway have distinct moraine sequences that previously have been assigned to the Allerød-Younger Dryas (∼ 13,400 to 11,700 yr BP) interval, constraining the regional distribution of the equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) of cirque and valley glaciers. Here we present evidence from a once glacier-fed lake on southern Andøya that contests this view. Analyses of radiocarbon dated lacustrine sediments including rock magnetic parameters, grain size, organic matter, dry bulk density and visual interpretation suggest that no glacier was present in the low-lying cirque during the Younger Dryas-Allerød. The initiation of the glacial retreat commenced with the onset of the Bølling warming (∼ 14,700 yr BP) and was completed by the onset of Allerød Interstade (∼ 13,400 yr BP). The reconstructed glacier stages of the investigated cirque coincide with a cool and dry period from ∼ 17,500 to 14,700 yr BP and a somewhat larger Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) advance possibly occurring between ∼ 21,050 and 19,100 yr BP.