The basic science of epilepsy made fundamental advances in this period, with the discovery of GABA as the chief inhibitory transmitter and glutamate as the chief excitatory transmitter involved in epilepsy. This spurred intensive research by the pharmaceutical companies and the introduction of a range of new drug treatments, although none were shown to be of superior efficacy to those already existing. Extraordinary progress was made also in the basic science of genetics, although this did not feed into clinical epilepsy. The major investigational advances were CT and then MRI scanning, which transformed clinical practice in epilepsy, and also EEG technologies allowing prolonged monitoring and video-EEG correlation. The number of clinical researchers in epilepsy greatly increased, stimulated by changing university and hospital priorities and the technological advances of the computing era. Advances were made in many clinical fields in epilepsy, including epidemiology, paediatrics, epilepsy syndromes, febrile convulsions and their relationship to temporal lobe epilepsy, SUDEP and status epilepticus. Aided by therapeutic drug monitoring, antiseizure drug monotherapy became commonplace. New drugs and new surgical techniques were introduced. An attempt was made to federate ILAE and IBE under the umbrella of a new organisation, Epilepsy International, but this failed.

The modern era of epilepsy can be said to date from around 1860. In the ensuing decades epilepsy was at the centre of an enormous range of endeavours which included Hughlings Jackson’s landmark works, the theory of cerebral localisation, the introduction of bromide and then phenobarbitone therapy and the first attempts at the surgical resection of the epileptic focus. It was the period when idiopathic epilepsy (‘genuine epilepsy’) was considered to be an inherited degenerative brain disorder, associated with mental symptoms and deficiency and a specific ‘epileptic personality’. It was the period when neurology first became a recognisable medical specialty, special hospitals for epilepsy opened and epilepsy colonies were formed all over the world. Lombroso considered epilepsy and criminality to have close connections. Inpatient treatment was conducted within the asylum system by psychiatrists. Epilepsy was associated with enormous stigma and was widely hidden or denied. In 1911, eugenics was proposed as a solution to the problems caused by epilepsy. Dostoyevsky, Zola, Dickens, Hardy and others included epilepsy in their books, and leading authors suffered from epilepsy but concealed their condition. International medical and psychiatric congresses were held, and during one of these, the International League Against Epilepsy was formed.

At the beginning of this period, psychiatry and psychology still dominated the management of epilepsy. Psychometry was widely used in epilepsy colonies, laws were passed restricting the rights of those with mental handicap, and psychoanalytical theories of seizures, conceived as symptoms of infantile regression, and also of the epileptic personality were widely held. Diverse theories of heritability were postulated. The rise of eugenics, as well as of psychoanalytical theories, greatly worsened the stigma of epilepsy. Eugenic measures were introduced which included involuntary sterilisation in some countries, and ‘mercy killings’ by the Nazi regime. In the later years, the science of epilepsy advanced with studies of neurochemistry, neuropathology and neurophysiology, and in the late 1930s EEG burst into the clinical arena. Treatment also made progress with the introduction of the ketogenic diet and then Phenytoin. The two world wars resulted in new interest in the surgical treatment of post-traumatic seizures. Attitudes to epilepsy remained largely hostile and the condition featured in the works of well-known authors including Thomas Mann, Agatha Christie, Joseph Roth and John Cowper Powis, who had epilepsy but never revealed this publicly. The ILAE ceased to function in 1914 but was resuscitated in 1937.

The pace of basic and clinical science increased dramatically in this period, boosted by an enormous increase in funding, especially in the USA. The pharmaceutical industry developed strongly and a range of new drugs were introduced for epilepsy, including ethosuximide, carbamazepine, valproate and the benzodiazepines. Pharmacokinetic principles were introduced into clinical prescribing. Specialism in medicine developed strongly and neurology took over from psychiatry as the primary specialty of epilepsy. Temporal lobe epilepsy was identified as an important form of epilepsy, the relevance of hippocampal sclerosis was recognised and temporal lobectomy was introduced. The ILAE became an important force in epilepsy with the introduction of its classification of seizure types. The ‘welfare state’ provided access to modern medical care for all patients with epilepsy for the first time in history. Institutionalisation greatly diminished. The stigma of epilepsy began to lessen in the era of liberalism and social democratic principles; social attitudes towards epilepsy greatly improved, as did the position of those handicapped by epilepsy with the disability rights movement. The patients’ voice was beginning to be heard, legislation was adopted protecting the rights of people with epilepsy, epilepsy featured in film/TV and new patient associations were formed including the IBE.