When Otto Hahn, Werner Heisenberg, and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker returned to Germany from Farm Hall, they needed to justify their wartime work on uranium without appearing to have betrayed the German war effort. Hahn was aided by his Nobel Prize and his presidency of the Max Planck Society. Hahn used his prestige to systematically defend German science and repress its nazification, contributions to the war effort, and participation in war crimes. Heisenberg and Weizsacker helped create the legend of Copenhagen: they had supposedly traveled to occupied Denmark in order to persuade Niels Bohr to help them forestall all nuclear weapons. This legend was popularized by the author Robert Jungk, but denied, at least privately, by Bohr. When the West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer and his Defense Minister Franz Josef Strauss suggested that the Federal Republic should have its own nuclear weapons, Hahn, Heisenberg, and Weizsäcker joined fifteen other prominent German scientists to issue the Göttingen Declaration, rejecting West German nuclear weapons and refusing to participate in the development of such weapons. Weizsäcker subsequently refined his stance on nuclear weapons.

At the end of the war ten German scientists were interned in a country house named Farm Hall in Britain. With one exception, all had worked on the wartime research project on the economic and military applications of nuclear fission. There were microphones hidden in the walls and the Germans’ conversations were recorded, excerpted, translated, and transcribed, including in particular their reactions to the surprising and shocking news of Hiroshima. The Germans discussed four basic questions among themselves: Did they know how to build an atomic bomb? Could the Germans have built these weapons? Did the Germans try to make atomic bombs? Had they been Nazis?

The American Alsos Mission, a scientific intelligence-gathering task force, followed behind the advancing Allied armies in the west, looking for evidence of a German atomic bomb. Its scientific leader, the physicist Samuel Goudmit, quickly determined that the Germans were far removed from building nuclear weapons but also was misled by some documents and his own prejudices, convincing himself that the Germans, including his colleague Werner Heisenberg, had not understood how an atomic bomb would work. When Goudsmit returned to the United States, he began publishing books and articles using the German uranium work as an example of how the Nazis had ruined science through political and ideological control, mistakes that America must not repeat. Heisenberg responded by defending both his scientific work and conduct under Hitler. Goudsmit criticized both Heisenberg and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker for compromising with the Nazis. While Goudsmit eventually reconciled with Heisenberg, he never forgave Weizsäcker. Goudsmit had lost his parents in Auschwitz, and Weizsäcker’s father, a high-ranking official in the Foreign Ministry, had been convicted of war crimes.

In order to determine what really happened when Werner Heisenberg and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker met with Niels Bohr in occupied Copenhagen in September 1941, this visit has to be placed in several contexts. By this time the German uranium research had demonstrated that atomic bombs were probably feasible, even if not for Germany during the war. The summer 1942 German offensive against the Soviet Union had not yet begun to falter, although Heisenberg was nevertheless privately very anxious about the war. The Germans alienated Bohr and his colleagues by their participation in cultural propaganda and nationalistic and militaristic comments about the war. A comparison with Heisenberg’s other lecture trips abroad shows that he acted the same way in other places. Heisenberg’s subsequent efforts in 1942 to gain support from Nazi officials by both describing the power of atomic bombs and the threat that the Americans might get them first also do not fit with an attempt at Copenhagen to forestall all nuclear weapons. Instead the best explanation for the visit is Heisenberg and Weizsäcker’s fear of American atomic bombs falling on Germany.

When the war slowed down in the winter of 1942-1942, the uranium research was evaluated with the result that it became clear that atomic bombs could not be made in Germany in time to influence the outcome of the war. The project was transferred from Army Ordnance to the Reich Research Council, the institution responsible for mobilizing civilian research for the war effort. The scientists, who were now threatened with the loss of their exemptions from frontline service, began to “sell” their research. Although they did not promise to deliver atomic bombs, they did emphasize the tremendous power of such weapons and warned that the Americans, who had much greater resources, were apparently working on this. In the meantime a model nuclear reactor experiment had produced a neutron increase, which was interpreted as proof in principle that a nuclear reactor could be built. Several influential figures responsible for armament production now took a keen interest in uranium research and the powerful Minister of Armaments Albert Speer decided to generously support the project.

When the United States dropped atomic bombs on Japan, Reverend John MacLean did not rejoice at the mass slaughter. Instead, he accepted the notion that the bombs brought an end to the war, but he felt that America had a duty to help rebuild. On January 6, 1946, MacLean announced to his church that God wanted him to raise money among American Christians for the restoration of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. He chose not to declare the atomic bombings as right or wrong; he simply tip-toed to the edge of calling it immoral. He did not go as far as to claim that the United States needed to apologize for the nuclear attacks. He merely pointed out that “a Christian nation had not only killed many thousands of helpless civilians, but destroyed the homes of countless others, leaving them shocked, wounded, terrified and deprived of a means of livelihood.” What began as a fund-raising drive by American Christians to atone for the atomic bombs quickly morphed into a campaign to build a Christian university in Japan. This chapter follows the American efforts to create this university and the leading ex-officials who played the most vital roles, from Ambassador Joseph Grew to Will Clayton to Eleanor Roosevelt.

This chapter summarises the science behind nuclear weapons and describes their development first by the United States and then by the Soviets with a narrative of the nuclear arms race between the two superpowers during the Cold War. Also described are the nuclear weapons programmes of the United Kingdom, France, China, Israel, India, South Africa, Pakistan, and North Korea. Of these, only South Africa has eliminated its programmes and the associated weapons.

The opening chapter introduces the reader to the ongoing genome-editing revolution, which is spearheaded by the discovery of CRISPR. To set the appropriate context for the book, the chapter discusses human ingenuity, its presence throughout the history of civilization, and the power it holds to transform the world. The chapter lays out a foundation on which to argue that transformative technologies—such as the printing press, the Internet, nuclear weapons, and other technological feats that induced massive cultural and social change—share a common modus operandi. This exposition aims to help the audience grasp the significance of having access to the specialized tools required to rationally manipulate the genetic composition of living organisms. The chapter provides a high-level overview of the book’s contributions to the literature and discusses the importance of interdisciplinary inquiry to bridge gaps between science, law, and policy.

The introduction’s core purpose is to emphasize to the reader that the potential impact of genome editing is likely to be on par with—if not greater than—the discovery of nuclear fission, which led to the development of nuclear weapons, or the advent of modern computing, which spawned the era of worldwide communications via the Internet.

In After the End, John Berger notes that “since the Second World War, a variety of ‘unspeakables’ have seldom been silent, although their utterances have often been disguised or symptomatic.” Berger refers to the traumatizing catastrophes of the Holocaust and the atomic bomb, while Morris Dickstein in Gates of Eden adds “the cold war…, the draft, and Vietnam” to the list of crises that signaled end times. This chapter discusses destruction and regeneration as envisioned in literary and popular writing across the political spectrum in the post-World War II decades: during the era of Cold War consensus, Nobel Laureate William Faulkner enjoyed his literary brethren to “forget” the bomb, and leading white male authors indeed wrote narratives of “personal apocalypse” that bracketed world concerns. African American canonical writers of the period were rarely so sanguine; their anti-apocalyptic writings directly targeted the nuclear threat as intensifying racial oppression at home and/or as urgently pointing white America toward national and international brotherhood.By the late 1960s, as fears of the bomb subsided, establishment writers wrote in the apocalyptic shadow of Charles Manson and the generation of frustrated, radicalized youth thought to follow in his wake.

This chapter deals with the final stages of the war against Japan in 1945. The condition of Japan and its war effort. The beginning of effective long-range bombing against Japanese cities. The Battle of Okinawa. Japan’s unwillingness to surrender, and plans for defensive battles in Japan itself. American invasion plans. The American-British Potsdam Declaration, and the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Role of the Emperor Hirohito in Japan’s final decision to capitulate. Historical debates about the use of atomic bomb. The Russian ground campaign in Manchuria, and the arrival of the Red Army in northeast China and Korea. The reaction of the Chinese Nationalists to the sudden collapse of Japan. The end of the war in Southeast Asia, and the arrival of British and other Allied forces in European colonies that had been occupied by Japan.