Index

Samuel Mwita Wangwe

doi:10.1017/9781009285803.021

Index

Footnotes are indicated by n. after the page number.

Acemoglu, Daron, xviii, xx, 137, 294

African Association (political party), 7

agricultural sector. See also rural areas

cooperative enterprises, 119

in early post-independence period, 103

exports, 33

land occupancy rights. See land right laws; village land reclassification

land titling, impact on, 331

in Magufuli era, 127, 129

in market economy transition era, 10–11

productivity data, 23–25, 27, 29, 31, 57, 316

quantitative survey findings on, 81

in socialist era, 8, 9, 146–147

under-performance, 4, 52, 117, 316

Amin, Idi, 10

anti-corruption initiatives:

decentralisation as, 193, 210

effectiveness, 62, 82, 139, 166–167, 174, 350, 365

generally, 348–350, 358, 367

Magufuli’s electoral promise of, 14–15, 86, 120, 125–126, 151, 322, 350

Magufuli’s implementation style, 16, 132, 139, 339, 363, 365, 369

for power sector, 287

for tax administration, 127

anti-money laundering initiatives, 127

Arusha Declaration. See also socialist era (1967–85)

Leadership Code, 105, 115, 120, 161, 165, 167, 185

significance, 8, 104, 145, 168, 184–185, 195

Asian and Arab businesspeople, 5–6, 101–102, 103, 108, 120–121, 137–138, 320–321

Askew, Kelly, 228–229, 252

Atkinson, Anthony B., 46n.27

auditing of government expenditure, 90, 206

authoritarianism of Magufuli. See Magufuli, John Pombe

Baland, Jean-Marie, xxiv

Bangladesh:

economic growth in, 22

institutional capacity data, 60, 62, 63, 66, 67, 69, 70

power sector decentralisation, 310–311

Barker, Carol E., 107, 108–109

Besley, Timothy, 194, 212

Big Results Now initiative, 87n.16, 150, 284

Bomani, Paul, 105

Boudreaux, Karol, 226–227

Bourguignon, François, 143

Bryceson, Deborah F., 110

budgetary deficits, 37–38, 39

bureaucracy. See civil service

Burundi:

institutional capacity data, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66, 67, 70

railway link with, 35–36

refugees from, 13

business environment:

cooperative enterprises, 119

good governance indicators, xviii, xix

key informants’ views on, 88–89

non-indigenous businesspeople, 5–6, 101–102, 103, 108, 120–121, 137–138, 320–321

politics and business. See business-politics nexus

quantitative survey findings on, 82

reform proposals, 350–352

Samia era reforms, 18–19, 129–130, 320, 333–334

SMEs (small and medium-sized enterprises), 89, 105–106, 138

SOEs. See parastatal business sector (SOEs)

business-politics nexus. See also corruption and cronyism

businesspeople engaged in politics, 120, 123

future research on, 139–140

generally, xxviii, 97–98, 134–135, 320–323, 338–339

indigenous business promotion, politics of, 107, 112–113, 120–121, 137–138, 321

informal institutions, xxiv, 136–137, 349

Leadership Code of Arusha Declaration, 105, 115, 120, 161, 165, 167, 185

politicians engaged in business, 105, 115, 322

state capture by business, theory on, 99–101, 135–136, 291–292, 350–351

surveyed over time, 98–99, 130–133, 136–137

first phase (1961–66), 101–104

second phase (1967–85), 104–111

third phase (1986–95), 111–115

fourth phase (1996–2015), 115–125

fifth phase (2015–21), 15–16, 125–129, 132, 363, 365, 366

sixth phase (2021–), 18–19, 129–130, 320, 333–334, 363–364

Cambodia:

economic growth in, 22

institutional capacity data, 60, 63, 67, 70

Cameron, Sir David, 142

CCM (Chama Cha Mapinduzi) (political party):

business engagement. See business-politics nexus

corruption scandals, 14, 124–125, 126, 281

establishment, 10

growth strategy neglect, 120–121

opposition to, 12, 14, 17, 18, 151, 354

single-party rule and factionalisation, 12, 286, 292, 338–339, 351, 354, 369–370

structural reform need, 127, 132

certificates of customary rights of occupancy, 227–228, 239–240

Chadema (political party), 14, 17, 110n.1, 125

Chande, J.K., 108, 110

child and maternal mortality, 49–50

China:

ancient mandarin system, 182–183, 210n.10

as trade partner, 36, 287, 296

cities. See urban areas

civil service. See also corruption and cronyism

competences and skills, 157–161, 204, 254–255

conduct, 164–168, 172–173, 188, 326–327, 338, 346–347

generally, 141, 182–184, 322, 326

key informants’ views on, 86, 87–88, 90

methodology of study, 142–143

quantitative survey findings on, 82–83

recruitment and promotion, 158–161, 174–175, 188–189

reform proposals, 174–177, 189–190, 327–328, 345–348, 353, 359

resources and working tools, 169–171, 176, 204

specific areas. See education system; healthcare; land administration and management; local authorities; tax administration

staffing levels, 154–157, 174, 178–180, 254, 327

surveyed over time

colonial era, 6, 141–142, 158, 184

first phase (1961–66), 143–144, 153

second phase (1967–85). See civil service in socialist era

third phase (1986–95), 112, 148–150, 153, 162, 164, 172, 326

fourth phase (1996–2015), 151–153, 168, 173–174, 327

fifth phase (2015–21), 151, 162–163

sixth phase (2021–), 364

wages and incentives, 161–164, 172, 175, 180–181, 187–188, 327, 346–347

civil service in socialist era:

corruption, 164, 167, 188, 326

economic reforms, role in, 145–148, 153, 164, 168–169, 172, 173, 184–187

local government level, 195, 198

wages and incentives, 161, 188

civil society actors, 16, 100–101, 173, 309

climate of Tanzania, 3–4, 267

colonial era, 5–6, 141–142, 158, 184, 218–220, 269–270

Common Market for the Eastern and Southern Africa, 37

compulsory acquisition compensation, 228–230

construction sector, 23, 26

Cooksy, Brian, 276n.9

cooperative enterprises, 119

corruption and cronyism. See also business-politics nexus; civil service

anti-corruption initiatives. See anti-corruption initiatives

civil service corruption generally, 164–168, 172–173, 188, 326–327, 338

civil service recruitment and promotion decisions, 158–161, 188–189

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

deals culture pre-Magufuli, 11–12, 14, 15, 115, 124–125, 139, 168, 281, 292, 349

economic reforms impeded by, 119, 167–168, 172

escrow account fraud scandals, 14n.13, 40, 122–123, 125, 167, 286, 354

exposure by media and civil society actors, 100–101, 173

in extractives sector, 264n.3

general election of 2020 (believed rigged), 17, 349, 350, 354, 366–367

generally, xx, 12, 19, 45–46, 86–87, 318

import tariffs and, 37

international ranking data, 166, 252, 363, 366

key informants’ views on, 86, 87

in land administration, 218, 252, 253, 343

in local government, 205

looting type, 122–123

in power sector. See power sector, corruption scandals

predation and rent-seeking types, 124, 291–292

public trust in institutions and, 71, 339, 353

quantitative survey findings on, 80, 82, 84

racketeering, 167

state capture by business, theory on, 99–101, 135–136, 291–292, 350–351

in tax administration, 115, 117, 127, 203, 205, 213, 324

Coulson, Andrew, 108, 145

COVID-19 pandemic, 4, 17–18, 55–56

CRO (customary right of occupancy), 227–228, 235, 239–240, 248, 259. See also village land reclassification

cronyism. See corruption and cronyism

cross-country studies, xx–xxi, 58–59, 358

customary land rights. See also village land reclassification

CRO (customary right of occupancy), 227–228, 235, 239–240, 248, 259

frustrated by statutory reforms, 219–221

generally, 217, 223

debt, national, 37–38, 39

debt moratoria and cancelling, 40, 42

decentralisation. See also local authorities

fiscal. See fiscal decentralisation

generally, 191, 192–194, 208–210, 323–324, 340–341

of land administration, 236, 251, 258, 330

of power sector, 297–298, 308, 310–312

democracy:

CCM’s single-party rule and factionalisation, 12, 286, 292, 338–339, 351, 354, 369–370

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

general election of 2020 (believed rigged), 17, 349, 350, 354, 366–367

Magufuli’s authoritarianism. See Magufuli, John Pombe

presidential powers. See presidential powers

press freedom, 16, 18, 83, 129, 291–292, 368

public perceptions of, 72

Samia era reforms, 18–19, 129, 131, 367, 368–369

demographic trends, 4, 13

donor assistance. See ODA (overseas development assistance)

Dutch disease, 39–40

East Africa Community, 10, 13, 37

Eberhard, Anton, 295

economic development, history of:

colonial era, 5–6, 141–142, 158, 184, 218–220, 269–270

first phase (1961–66), 102–103, 143–144

second phase. See socialist era (1967–85)

third phase. See market economy transition era (1986–95)

fourth phase. See market era (1996–2015)

fifth phase (development policies, 2015–21), 15–16, 126–129, 137, 264n.3, 286–288, 351

sixth phase. See Samia era

generally, xvii, 6–7, 19, 21, 315–316

thematic surveys over time. See business-politics nexus; civil service; land right laws; local authorities; power sector, institutional framework

economic development constraints:

agricultural sector under-performance, 4, 52, 117, 316

budgetary deficits, 37–38, 39

corruption and cronyism. See corruption and cronyism

COVID-19 pandemic, 4, 17–18, 55–56

donor assistance dependency, 39–40, 42–43, 51, 52–53, 316, 339

industrialisation, deficiencies of, 116–117, 352

institutional deficiencies. See institutional capacity

power sector deficiencies. See power sector

quantitative survey findings on, 78

uncertain growth engine, xxvii–xxviii, 28–29, 42–43, 52, 315–317

economic growth and development:

constraints on. See economic development constraints

data on, xxvii, 13, 20, 21–22, 51, 115–116, 153

earlier research on, 54

external finance. See FDI (foreign direct investment); ODA (overseas development assistance)

good leadership to promote, 132–133

history of. See economic development, history of

industrialisation policies, 15, 110–111, 114, 116–119, 127, 132, 352

investment trends, 29–32

natural gas opportunity, 36, 53

private consumption trends, 31, 37, 45

public revenue and expenditure. See government expenditure; tax administration

social matters. See labour market; poverty and inequality

structural change, 23–29

trade policies, 37, 82, 113–114, 116–117. See also exports; imports

education system:

pupil-teacher ratios, 48–49, 155–156, 347

pupil-textbook ratios, 170

quality concerns generally, 48, 53, 157, 159, 317

reforms, Magufuli era, 16

school enrolment data, 46–48

teacher absenteeism and morale, xxi, 48, 163, 165, 346–347

Edwards, Sebastian, 9

electricity sector. See power sector

Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority. See EWURA (Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority)

EPA (External Payments Arrears) account scandal, 14n.13, 122, 167

EPP (Emergency Power Producer) corruption scandal, 266

EPZs (export processing zones), 121–122, 136

ERP (IMF Economic Recovery Programme), 149, 271, 277

ESAF (IMF Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility Programme), 271, 277–278

escrow account fraud scandals, 14n.13, 40, 122–123, 125, 167, 286, 354

ethnic diversity:

inter-group relations, 4–5, 9–10, 81, 188n.12

non-indigenous businesspeople, 5–6, 101–102, 103, 108, 120–121, 137–138, 320–321

refugees, 13

EWURA (Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority):

establishment and development, 278, 282, 298

power sector institutional framework, position in, 264–265, 266, 283, 285, 287, 296

tariff controls by, 88, 284, 287, 296, 305, 332

exports:

agricultural products, 33

data on, 33

EPZs (export processing zones), 121–122, 136

gold and minerals, 4, 33, 42, 43

imports, deficit with, 37

manufacturing products, 26, 33, 34–35, 42, 52, 316

natural gas opportunity, 36, 53

services, 35–36

external finance. See FDI (foreign direct investment); ODA (overseas development assistance)

External Payments Arrears (EPA) account scandal, 14n.13, 122, 167

extractives sector:

corruption scandal (2017), 264n.3

FDI (foreign direct investment) in, 41, 89, 121

Magufuli’s attack on, 15–16, 128, 365

gold and mineral exports, 4, 33, 42, 43

as potential growth driver, 29, 36, 53

Faguet, Jean-Paul, 194

farming. See agricultural sector

FDI (foreign direct investment):

deficiencies of FDI policies, 121–122

in early post-independence period, 102, 103

in extractives sector, 41, 89, 121

Magufuli’s attack on, 15–16, 128, 365

land purchases, 219, 226–227, 231–234, 238, 329

in manufacturing sector, 41, 89

in market economy transition era, 150

in power sector, 296, 298–299, 309

in socialist era, 107–108

fiscal decentralisation. See also local authorities

central government transfers for capacity-building, 205–206, 214

data on, 201, 211

decentralisation generally, 191, 192–194, 208–210, 323–324, 340–341

deficiencies, 202, 203–205, 211–212, 213, 324–326

necessity questioned, 212–213, 215, 324–325

property tax example, 202–203, 213, 258, 324

reform proposals, 206–207, 213–214

revenue sources, 201–202

Fischer, Pius, 216

fishing licence fraud, 124

Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge, 202, 205

foreign direct investment. See FDI (foreign direct investment)

freedom of expression, 16, 18, 83, 129, 291–292, 368

Fukuyama, Francis, 150

Gaddis, Isis, 47, 48

general land, village land reclassified as. See village land reclassification

geography of Tanzania, 3–4

Gerschenkron, Alexander, 141

gold and mineral exports, 4, 33, 42, 43

good governance indicators, xviii, xix

‘Governance and the Law’ (World Bank report), xix

government expenditure. See also tax administration

budgetary deficits, 37–38, 39

civil service wage bill, 154–155, 161–162, 163, 180–181, 327

data on, 29–30

fiscal decentralisation. See fiscal decentralisation

independent assessment, restrictions on, 367–368

infrastructure development, 15, 32, 127

looting of government monies, 122–123

power sector under-funding, 32, 88, 267, 301–303

public auditing, 90, 206

public services provision, 39. See also education system; healthcare

Gratwick, Katharine Nawaal, 295

Gray, Hazel, 139

Green, Reginald H., 169, 185

GRO (granted right of occupancy), 224–227, 235, 239, 241–242

growth diagnostics, xxii–xxiii

Harvey, David, 216

Hausmann, Ricardo, xxii–xxiii

healthcare:

clinicians’ competences and skills, 50–51, 157, 158

in COVID-19 pandemic, 17–18, 55–56

infant and maternal mortality data, 49–50

resources and infrastructure, 170, 171

staff absenteeism and morale, 163–164, 165, 346

Heller, Thomas C., 268, 295, 296

historical case studies, xix–xx

Hombrados, J. Garcia, 331

Hong Kong, anti-corruption strategy, 350

household consumption trends, 31, 37, 45

human rights:

compulsory acquisition compensation, 228–230

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

freedom of expression, 16, 18, 83, 129, 291–292, 368

violations affecting donor assistance, 40, 368

hunting licence fraud, 124

Huther, Jeff, 193–194

hydroelectric power, 15, 267, 273, 275, 287n.11, 303n.24

IMF (International Monetary Fund). See also Wolrd Bank

Article IV statutory report on Tanzania (2019), 368

development assistance generally. See ODA (overseas development assistance)

ERP (Economic Recovery Programme), 149, 271, 277

ESAF (Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility Programme), 271, 277–278

SAPs (structural adjustment programmes), 33, 111, 148–149, 151, 172, 295

imports:

import support funds misuse scandal, 115

smuggled goods, 87, 113–114

tariffs on, 117, 352

trends, 36–37, 323

industrialisation policies, 15, 110–111, 114, 116–119, 127, 132, 352. See also manufacturing sector

infant and maternal mortality, 49–50

informal institutions, xxiv, 136–137, 349

informal labour market, 16

informal land rights. See customary land rights

infrastructure development, 15, 32, 127

institutional capacity:

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

good governance indicators, xviii, xix

in-depth studies. See business-politics nexus; civil service; fiscal decentralisation; land administration and management; power sector

informal institutions, xxiv, 136–137, 349

institutional diagnostic findings. See institutional diagnostic findings

‘institutions’ term, xxiv

qualitative survey on, 85–91, 92, 318–319

quantitative survey on. See institutional capacity, quantitative survey

Samia era reforms. See Samia era

institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons:

Afrobarometer surveys, 71–72

alternative synthetic indicators use, 63–68

conclusions, 72–73, 90–91, 317–318

cross-country studies generally, xx–xxi, 58–59, 358

neighbouring countries, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66, 67, 70

outperforming peer countries, 60, 61–62, 63, 66, 67–68, 70

WGI synthetic indicators use, 59–63

World Bank Enterprise Surveys, 68–70

institutional capacity, key informants’ views, 85–91, 92, 318–319

institutional capacity, quantitative survey:

conclusions, 83–85, 90–91

critical institutions for development, views on, 77–78

design, implementation, and respondents, 73–77, 91

prospective assessment of reforms, 82–83

quality of institutions, views on, 79–82

institutional diagnostic findings:

deep factors and proximate causes of deficiencies, 335–340, 352–353, 357–358

introduction, 315

key institutional deficiencies, 334–335

projected for Samia era, xxviii–xxix, 361–370

reforms mapped to deficiencies. See reform needs and proposals

Institutional Diagnostic Project:

background, xxviii–xxix, 361

development, xvii, xxii–xxiv

methodology, xxiv–xxv, 93, 95

International Monetary Fund. See IMF (International Monetary Fund)

IPTL (independent power producer), 122–123, 264, 266, 267, 276–277, 279–280, 282

Japhet, Kyrilo, 7

Jedruszek, Jerzy, 108

Johnson, Chalmers, 141

Joshi, Arun R., 47, 48

judicial system. See also rule of law

key informants’ views on, 90

land disputes settlement, 244–245, 249, 252, 253, 330

in Magufuli era, 17, 128

quantitative survey findings on, 81, 83

Kahama, George, 105

Karume, Abeid Amani, 7

Kassa, Woubet, 331

Kenya:

institutional capacity data, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67, 70

political history, 5, 10

power sector reforms, 291

price control policies, 185n.8

as trade partner, 36

Khan, Mushtaq, xviii, 101, 120–121, 294

Kichonge, Baraka, 303n.22

Kikwete, Jakaya:

Big Results Now initiative, 87n.16, 150, 284

corruption scandals of presidency, 12, 122, 150

deals culture of presidency, 15, 168, 280

policies. See market era (1996–2015)

Kimambo, Isaria N., 5

Kironde, Lusugga, 224, 252

Kunkuta, Gustav E.A., 199

Laar, Aart J.M. van de, 144

labour market:

civil service staffing levels, 154–157, 174, 178–180, 254, 327

COVID-19 pandemic impact, 56

informal market, 16

productivity data, 24–26, 27–28, 31–32, 56–57, 316

quantitative survey findings on, 81

land administration, deficiencies:

corruption and inefficiency, 218, 252, 253, 257, 343

duality of tenure, 218, 246, 247–249

excessive eminent domain powers, 218, 229–230, 249–250

formalisation limited, 218, 250, 257

gender discrimination, 218, 240–241, 251

inadequate resources, 253–255

inequitable dispute settlement, 244–245, 249, 252, 253

institutional overlaps, 218, 251–252, 340

overview, 217–218, 245–246, 247, 328–331

reform proposals, 255–256, 258–261, 330–331, 341–345, 359

land administration, institutional framework:

disposition mandates, 241–244

dispute settlement mandates, 244–245, 252, 253

institutional overlaps, 218, 251–252

land rights grant and allocation mandates, 238–241

overview, 236–238

land administration and management:

deficiencies. See land administration, deficiencies

foreign investments in land, 219, 226–227, 231–234, 238, 329

institutional framework. See land administration, institutional framework

key informants’ views on, 89

land types, 217, 222–223, 328

legal framework. See land right laws

by local authorities, 236, 251, 258, 330

ownership of land vested in president, 216, 219, 222, 223, 226, 236

property tax, decentralised administration, 202–203, 213, 258, 324

quantitative survey findings on, 79, 80, 84

reform proposals, 255–256, 258–261, 330–331, 341–345, 359

village land reclassification. See village land reclassification

villagisation policies, socialist era, 8–10, 146–147, 210n.12, 220, 328

land right laws:

customary rights. See customary land rights

evolution (pre-1999), 218–222, 328

GRO (granted right of occupancy), 224–227, 235, 239, 241–242

introduction to study, 216–218

Land Act 1999, 222, 223–227, 230, 236, 241, 245, 257, 328

Village Land Act 1999, 222, 223, 227–228, 238–239, 240, 251, 257. See also village land reclassification

Lao People’s Democratic Republic:

economic growth in, 22

institutional capacity data, 60, 63, 67, 70

power sector reforms, 304

law concept and law reforms, xxiv

Lawson, Andrew, 354

Leadership Code of Arusha Declaration, 105, 115, 120, 161, 165, 167, 185

Leyaro, Vincent, 180

liberalisation era. See market economy transition era (1986–95)

literacy and numeracy rates, 46

local authorities:

central government, relationship with, 198–201

corruption, 205

decentralisation generally, 191, 192–194, 208–210, 323–324, 340–341

fiscal decentralisation. See fiscal decentralisation

land administration by, 236, 251, 258, 330

power sector role, potential, 297–298, 308, 312

reforms over time, 146, 195–198, 210–211, 214–215

resources and working tools, 170, 204

staff shortages, 156

Lofchie, Michael F., 135

logging, illegal, 124

looting of government monies, 122–123

Lowasa, Edward, 14, 125, 281, 322n.4

Magufuli, John Pombe:

anti-business policies, 15–16, 125–129, 132, 363, 365, 366

anti-corruption initiatives. See anti-corruption initiatives

charisma and autocratic style, 16, 129, 287–288, 339, 357

civil service reforms, 151, 162–163

COVID-19 pandemic response, 17–18, 55

death (March 2021), xxviii, 18

development policies, 15–16, 126–129, 137, 264n.3, 286–287, 351

independent auditing criminalised by, 367–368

press freedom curtailed by, 16, 18, 129, 291–292, 368

re-election (2020), 17, 349, 350, 354, 366–367

rise to power, 13–15, 86, 120, 125–126, 151

Malawi, institutional capacity data, 60, 61, 62, 67, 70

Malaysia, non-indigenous businesspeople in, 138

manufacturing sector:

exports, 26, 33, 34–35, 42, 52

FDI (foreign direct investment) in, 41, 89

industrialisation policies, 15, 110–111, 114, 116–119, 127, 132, 352

privatised manufacturing firms, 113, 118

productivity data, 23–28, 57, 316

market economy transition era (1986–95):

civil service in, 112, 148–150, 153, 162, 164, 168–169, 172, 326

corruption scandals, 11–12, 122–123, 276–277

donor-funded reforms, 10–11, 21, 30, 169, 272–273

SAPs (structural adjustment programmes), 33, 111, 148–149, 151, 172, 295

import licensing abolition, 36

land law reforms, 221–222

local government in, 196–197

politicians engaged in business, 115

power sector, institutional development, 271–277

privatisation policies. See privatisation policies

trade and industrial sector, balance between, 113–114

market era (1996–2015):

civil service in, 151–153, 168, 173–174, 327

corruption scandals. See power sector, corruption scandals

land law reforms (1999). See land right laws

local government decentralisation, 197–198

market economy consolidation, 13, 115–116

power sector, institutional development, 277–286

privatisation policies. See privatisation policies

refugee influx, 13

Masaki, Takaaki, 205–206, 214

maternal and infant mortality, 49–50

McCulloch, Neil, 299, 309

McMillan, Margaret, 26, 28n.4

media:

corruption exposure role, 100–101, 173

freedom of, 16, 18, 83, 129, 291–292, 368

mining sector. See extractives sector

Mkapa, Benjamin:

anti-corruption electoral promises, 86, 115, 120, 150, 277

corruption scandals of presidency, 12, 86, 122–123

policies. See market era (1996–2015)

Mozambique, institutional capacity data, 60, 61, 62, 67, 70

Mpofu, H., 220

Mramba, Sist J., 220

Msami, Jamal, 199

Msangi, Daniel Eliwaha, 229–230

Mtei, Edwin, 175

Musiba, Cyprian, 130

Mwinyi, Ali Hassan, 10–12, 86, 111, 149, 271

national debt, 37–38, 39

nationalisation policies, socialist era, 8–9, 104, 145, 270

natural gas opportunity, 36, 53

natural resources. See extractives sector

nepotism. See corruption and cronyism

NGOs (non-governmental organisations), 16, 173

non-indigenous businesspeople, 5–6, 101–102, 103, 108, 120–121, 137–138, 320–321

North, Douglass, xviii, xxiv, 137

numeracy and literacy rates, 46

Nyerere, Julius K.:

charisma and moral authority, 125, 131, 164

on colonial civil service, 142

end of presidency, 20, 111, 148, 271

non-indigenous businesspeople, support of, 102, 108

policies. See socialist era (1967–85)

on presidential powers, 356–357, 369

rise to power, 7–8

Oates, Wallace E., 193

ODA (overseas development assistance). See also IMF (International Monetary Fund); World Bank

crises in government-donor relationship, 11–12, 40–41, 115, 368

debt moratoria and cancelling, 40, 42

dependency concern, 39–40, 42–43, 51, 52–53, 316, 339

ESAF (IMF Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility Programme), 271, 277–278

for market economy transition, 10–11, 21, 30, 169, 272–273

SAPs (structural adjustment programmes), 33, 111, 148–149, 151, 172, 295

need, fluctuations in, 13, 30, 32, 38–39, 289

quantitative survey findings on, 81

in Samia era and future, 19, 56, 299, 309

in socialist era, 9, 40, 270–271

Olomi, Donath, 118, 120

Paget, Dan, 17

pan-Africanism, 10

parastatal business sector (SOEs):

managers’ compensation, 163

privatisation of. See privatisation policies

regulation of, 88

in socialist era, 8–9, 104, 105, 106–111, 145

TANESCO. See TANESCO (national electricity company)

peri-urban land reclassification. See village land reclassification

Persson, Torsten, 194, 212

political history of Tanzania. See also economic development, history of

pre-colonial era, 5

colonial era, 5–6, 141–142, 158, 184, 218–220, 269–270

independence, 7–8, 101

post-independence nation-building, 9–10

war with Uganda (1978–79), 10, 158, 164, 271

constitutional reforms (1985–95), 11, 196

Magufuli era. See Magufuli, John Pombe

Samia era. See Samia era

generally, 6–7, 19

politics and business. See business-politics nexus

population data:

demographic trends, 4, 13

ethnic diversity. See ethnic diversity

post-Washington consensus, xviii

poverty and inequality:

corruption cause, 45–46

COVID-19 pandemic impact, 56

data on, 20, 43–45

electricity grid access data, 267–268

generally, 53, 316–317

infant and maternal mortality, 49–50

literacy and numeracy rates, 46

private consumption trends, 31, 37, 45

quantitative survey findings on social protection, 81

in rural areas. See rural areas

in urban areas, 45

village land dispossession. See village land reclassification

power sector:

corruption scandals. See power sector, corruption scandals

decentralisation proposal, 297–298, 308, 310–312

EWURA. See EWURA (Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority)

hydroelectric and other alternative sources, 15, 267, 273, 275, 287n.11, 303–305

institutional framework. See power sector, institutional framework

introduction to studies, 262–263, 300

mini-grids, 287n.11, 303nn.23–324, 305, 308n.32

performance data, 266–268, 301–303

PPPs (public-private partnerships) in, 284, 285, 286, 290, 296, 307, 332, 345

rural areas, reforms for, 266, 282, 293, 297–298, 303–304, 310–311, 333

TANESCO. See TANESCO (national electricity company)

under-funding of, 32, 88, 267, 301–303

power sector, corruption scandals:

generally, 269, 291–292, 293, 296, 305, 332, 341

IPTL, overcharging by, 122–123, 266, 267, 276–277, 282

Magufuli’s responses, 287

Richmond/Dowans/Symbion, overcharging by, 40, 167, 266, 267, 280–281, 322n.4

Tegeta Escrow Account fraud, 122–123, 125, 167, 286

power sector, institutional framework:

deficiencies, 305–309, 331–334, 341

‘dysfunctional equilibrium’ of, 293–297, 333–334

outlined, 263–266, 282, 283, 287

political economy analysis of, 288–293

reform proposals, 297–299, 307–312, 345, 360

surveyed over time

colonial era, 269–270

second phase (1967–85), 270–271

third phase (1986–95), 271–277

fourth phase (1996–2015), 277–286

fifth phase (2015–21), 286–288, 290

PPPs (public-private partnerships) in power sector, 284, 285, 286, 290, 296, 307, 332, 345

Pratt, Cranford, 146, 185

pre-colonial era, 5

predation and rent-seeking, 124, 291–292

pre-primary education, 48

presidential powers:

authoritarianism of Magufuli. See Magufuli, John Pombe

checks and balances lacking, 90, 356–357, 369

over land, 216, 219, 222, 223, 226, 236, 242, 328

over power sector, 265–266, 288, 332, 341

reformed (1985), 11

press freedom, 16, 18, 83, 129, 291–292, 368

primary education, 46–47, 48–49

private consumption trends, 31, 37, 45

privatisation policies:

civil service administration of, 149, 168, 326

deficiencies, 13, 80, 88–89, 113, 279–280

generally, 11, 101, 112–113, 118, 168, 208, 293

TANESCO privatisation, 88, 263, 277–280, 291, 293

productivity data, 23–29, 31–32, 56–57, 316

propensity to consume data, 31, 37

property rights. See land right laws

PSRPs (Public Service Reform Programmes), 151, 152, 169, 170, 172, 173

public administration. See civil service

public procurement fraud, 124

public revenue and expenditure. See government expenditure

Public Service Reform Programmes (PSRPs), 151, 152, 169, 170, 172, 173

public trust in institutions, 17, 71, 90, 339, 353

public-private partnerships in power sector, 284, 285, 286, 290, 296, 307, 332, 345

Racketeering, 167

Rakner, Lise, 354

randomised control trial studies, xxi

Ranja, Timothy, 321n.3

Rashidi, Idris, 282–283

real exchange rate trends, 34, 35

reform needs and proposals:

anti-corruption initiatives, need for, 348–350, 358

business environment reforms, 350–352

civil service reforms, 174–177, 189–190, 327–328, 345–348, 353, 359

fiscal decentralisation reforms, 206–207, 213–214

key principles for action, 355–357

land administration reforms, 255–256, 258–261, 330–331, 341–345, 359

power sector reforms, 297–299, 307–312, 345, 360

prospects for change in Samia era, 361–370

summary of, 359–360

transparency and accountability reforms, need for, 342–345, 352–355, 359–360

Reinikka, Ritva, 212

religious diversity, 6

rent-seeking and predation, 124, 291–292

Richmond (emergency power producer) overcharging scandal, 40, 167, 266, 267, 280–281, 282, 322n.4

Robinson, James, xviii, xx, 137, 294

Rodrik, Dani, xxii–xxiii, 34, 35

rule of law. See also judicial system

checks and balances lacking, 90, 356–357, 369

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

land right laws. See land right laws

law concept and law reforms, xxiv

law implementation deficiencies, 341, 342

public trust in institutions, 17, 71, 90, 339, 353

Samia era reforms, 18–19, 130, 366

rural areas. See also agricultural sector; urban areas

administrative reforms for, 195, 204

business support provision, 105, 117

education in, 48

power sector reforms for, 266, 282, 293, 297–298, 303–304, 310–311, 333

power supply inequality, 302

urban migration from, 4, 184, 216

village land reclassification. See village land reclassification

villagisation policies, socialist era, 8–10, 146–147, 210n.12, 220, 328

Rwanda:

COVID-19 pandemic impact, 55

institutional capacity data, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66, 67, 70

land reform policies, 257–258

railway link with, 35–36

refugees from, 13

Rweyemamu, Justinian, 185

Samia era (presidency of Samia Suluhu Hassan):

business environment reforms, 18–19, 129–130, 320, 333–334, 363–364

civil service reforms, 364

COVID-19 pandemic response, 55

democracy and rule of law reforms, 18–19, 129, 130, 131, 366, 367, 368–369

institutional reform prospects in, 361–370

SAPs (structural adjustment programmes), 33, 111, 148–149, 151, 172, 295

Schreiber, Leon, 248

secondary education, 47, 48, 155, 170

service exports, 35–36

Sethi, Harbinder Singh, 123

Shah, Anwar, 193–194

Shao, John R., 108

Shivji, Issa G., 15, 148, 220, 222, 229, 251

Singapore, anti-corruption strategy, 350

SMEs (small and medium-sized enterprises), 89, 105–106, 138

smuggling, 87, 113–114

socialist era (1967–85):

Arusha Declaration, Leadership Code, 105, 115, 120, 161, 165, 167, 185

Arusha Declaration, significance, 8, 104, 145, 168, 184–185, 195

civil service in. See civil service in socialist era

end of, 20, 21, 111, 148, 271

foreign investments in property, regulation of, 219

legacy of, 292, 293, 339, 345

local government in, 195–197, 210–211

ODA (overseas development assistance) in, 9, 40, 270–271

parastatal business sector (SOEs) in, 8–9, 104, 105, 106–111, 145

power sector, institutional development, 270–271

villagisation policies, 8–10, 146–147, 210n.12, 220, 328

SOEs (state-owned enterprises). See parastatal business sector (SOEs)

Sokoine, Edward, 111, 146, 147, 167

Songas (independent power producer), 122–123, 264, 275–276, 279–280, 296

South Africa, 36, 135

South African Development Community, 37

South Korea, competition promotion, 352

state-business relationships. See business-politics nexus

state-owned enterprises (SOEs). See parastatal business sector (SOEs)

Stiglitz, Joseph, 168, 169

structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), 33, 111, 148–149, 151, 172, 295

structural change to economy, 23–29

Sulle, Emmanuel, 243, 244

Suluhu Hassan, Samia. See Samia era

Sumaye, Frederick, 176

Sutton, John E.G., 5, 118, 120

Svensson, Jakob, 212

Swahili language, 5, 10

TAA (Tanganyika African Association) (political party), 7

TANESCO (national electricity company):

budget constraints and financial difficulties, 88, 123, 267, 269, 284, 285, 287, 298, 332

establishment, 270

maladministration by. See power sector, corruption scandals

managerial reforms, 282–283, 333–334

power sector institutional framework, position in, 263–266, 295–296

privatisation, 88, 263, 277–280, 291, 293

unbundling proposal, 88, 278, 284–285, 286, 289–290, 293, 298, 345

TANU (Tanganyika African National Union) (political party), 7, 10, 108, 110, 132, 148, 186–187

tax administration. See also government expenditure

corruption and cronyism affecting, 115, 117, 127, 203, 205, 213, 324

deficiencies generally, 69

fiscal decentralisation. See fiscal decentralisation

Magufuli’s aggressive policies, 363, 366

quantitative survey findings on, 82–83

reform (1995), 87

VAT (value-added tax) introduction, 150

teachers. See education system

Tegeta Escrow Account scandal, 122–123, 125, 167, 286

Tenga, W. Ringo, 220, 224

Tidemand, Per, 199

tourism sector, 4, 36, 56, 124

trade policies, 37, 82, 113–114, 116–117. See also exports; imports

transport infrastructure, 15, 35–36

Tripp, Aili Mari, 113

Uganda:

education finance, 212

institutional capacity data, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67, 70

power sector reforms, 291

war with Tanzania (1978–79), 10, 158, 164, 271

Ujamaa era. See socialist era (1967–85)

urban areas. See also rural areas

land tenure issues, 89, 216, 224, 227, 230, 235, 236n.31, 258–259

local authorities in, 170, 196, 201, 206

poverty and inequality, 45

power supply to, 268, 302

rural migration to, 4, 184, 216

Valk, Peter de, 114

VAT (value-added tax), 150

Velasco, Andrés, xxii–xxiii

Victor, David G., 268, 295, 296

Vietnam:

economic growth in, 22, 114

institutional capacity data, 60, 61–62, 63, 67–68, 70

power sector reforms, 304

village land reclassification. See also customary land rights

commercial deals led by Tanzania Investment Centre, 231–234, 238, 250, 329

compensation for dispossession, 228–230, 249–250

controversies over, 226–227, 246, 247–249, 329–330

institutional framework. See land administration, institutional framework

legal framework (Village Land Act 1999), 222, 223, 227–228, 238–239, 240, 251, 257

process outlined, 217, 231

reform proposals, 255–256, 259–261, 330, 342–345

social and environmental impact, 235

villagisation policies, socialist era, 8–10, 146–147, 210n.12, 220, 328

wages and incentives for civil servants, 161–164, 172, 175, 180–181, 187–188, 327, 346–347

Wangwe, Samuel, 323

Washington Consensus, xvii

women:

institutional quality, elite women’s views, 81

land rights discrimination, 218, 240–241, 251

maternal and infant mortality, 49–50

World Bank. See also IMF (International Monetary Fund)

corruption scandal exposed by (1994), 11–12, 115

development assistance generally. See ODA (overseas development assistance)

enterprise surveys of Tanzania, 32, 59, 68–70, 73, 121, 128, 269, 317, 322

global rankings, 257, 318, 363

Health Service Delivery reports, 50–51, 158

poverty assessment of Tanzania, 44, 45, 46

power sector reform support, 272, 275, 276–277, 278, 281, 283, 284

PSRPs (Public Service Reform Programmes), 151, 152, 169, 170, 172, 173

SAPs (structural adjustment programmes), 33, 111, 148–149, 151, 172, 295

Systemic Country Diagnostic of Tanzania, 54

Three-Year Plan for Tanganyika (1961), 144

Zanzibar, 6, 7, 12

Zanzibar Resolution, 115, 120, 167

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