Procedures were developed to sample, store, ship, and process precipitated and metamorphosed snow crystals, collectively known as “snowflakes,” from remote sites to a laboratory where they could be observed and photographed using low temperature scanning electron microscopy (LTSEM). Snow samples were collected during 1994–96 from West Virginia, Colorado, and Alaska and sent to Beltsville, Maryland for observation. The samples consisted of freshly precipitated snowflakes as well as snow that was collected from pits that were excavated in winter snowfields measuring up to 1.5m in depth. The snow crystals were mounted onto copper plates, plunged into lN2 and then transferred to a storage dewar that was shipped to the laboratory. Observations, which could be easily recorded in stereo format (three-dimension), revealed detailed surface features on the precipitated crystals consisting of rime, graupel, and skeletal features. Samples from snowpacks preserved the metamorphosed crystals, which had unique structural features and bonding patterns resulting from temperature and vapor pressure gradients. In late spring, the surface of a snowpack in an alpine region exhibited a reddish hue. Undisturbed surfaces from these snowpacks could be sampled to observe the snow crystals as well as the organisms responsible for the coloration. Etching the surface of samples from these sites exposed the presence of numerous cells believed to be algae. The results of this study indicate that LTSEM can be used to provide detailed information about the surface features of precipitated and metamorphosed snow crystals sampled at remote locations. The technique can also be used to increase our understanding about the ecology of snow. The results have application to research activities that attempt to forecast the quantity of water in the winter snowpack and the amount that will ultimately reach reservoirs and be available for agriculture and hydroelectric power.

Dense, polycrystalline MgO was infiltrated with monticellite (CaMgSiO4) liquid to study the penetration of liquid along the grain boundaries of MgO. Grain growth was found to be restricted with increasing amounts of liquid. The inter-granular regions were generally found to be comprised of a two-phase mixture: crystalline monticellite and a glassy phase rich in the impurities present in the starting MgO material. MgO grains act as seeding agents for the crystallization of monticellite. The location and composition of the glassy phase with respect to the MgO grains emphasizes the role of intergranular liquid during the devitrification process in “snowplowing” impurities present in the matrix.

Serious difficulties are encountered when SIMS analysis is applied to plant cells because of the cells' basic organization. In most plant cells, the cytoplasm is present as a thin layer that surrounds a large central vacuole, and is surrounded externally by a porous semi-rigid cell wall. Due to the high internal hydrostatic pressure typical of plant cells, large-scale solute redistribution may occur when tissues are excised. Relatively small solute decompartmentation is sufficient to collapse the native solute gradients between the cytoplasm and the adjacent compartments, due to the small volume of the former. For these reasons, most of the SIMS analyses in plant cells have been performed on elements bound to non-diffusible structures such as proteins, cell wall polymers, or in dry seeds. Sample preparation remains a limiting factor when imaging the distribution of soluble compounds. Cryotechniques have generated considerable interest to circumvent these problems. Cryofixation followed by cryosectioning would a priori be the best procedure, but encouraging results indicate that cryofixation followed by cryosubstitution is an interesting alternative.

We describe a new electron-optical configuration for transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In this novel mode, the objective mini-lens is strongly excited so that the back focal plane of the objective lens is imaged onto the plane of the selected-area aperture with a magnification of 3.2. Thus, the selected-area aperture can function as an objective aperture either in place of or in addition to the conventional objective aperture. This new configuration, which has been implemented on a JEOL 4000EX high voltage electron microscope, provides improved resolution and contrast in images of thick biological specimens and also facilitates the use of beam tilt for stereo image acquisition.