Index

doi:10.1017/9781009278522.022

Index

Footnotes are indicated by n. after the page number.

Abacha, Sani, 309

Acemoglu, Daron, 3, 5

ACFTA (Africa Continental Free Trade Area), 336, 339

Adja-Fon ethnic group, 22, 23–24, 25, 26–27, 28, 352

Afouda, Servais A., 332

Africa Continental Free Trade Area (ACFTA), 336, 339

agencification reforms, 243–245

aggregate growth data, 43–47

agricultural sector:

cashew production, 55, 61, 394

cotton production. See cotton sector

diversification strategy requirement, 55, 344, 354, 393–395, 397

economic development constraints, 55

food insecurity and malnutrition, 79, 298–299

in Marxist-Leninist regime era, 30, 45, 185

palm oil products, 166n.2, 180n.26, 301, 306–307

pineapple production, 55, 344, 354, 374, 393–395, 398

productivity data, 47–49, 79–80, 298, 354

rural land reforms. See land reforms

Ahomadégbé, Justin, 29, 184n.35, 203

AIC (Association Interprofessionnelle de Coton), 194–195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 361–362, 401–402

Aigner, Dennis J., 216

Ajavon, Sébastien, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 53n.5, 325, 360

Ali, Daniel Ayalew, 301

Alia, Didier Y., 172

Allen, Chris, 31

Alley, Alphonse, 184n.35, 203

Anderson, Barry, 233n.15

Anderson, Siwan, 135

ANDF (Agence Nationale du Domaine et du Foncier):

establishment, 250, 269, 270, 287, 288, 300, 368

Ministry of Finance supervision of, 271, 272, 281

performance, 273, 284, 285, 288, 291

powers and duties, 275, 277, 280, 369

Angola, 223

anti-corruption initiatives, 37–38, 39–40, 115, 116, 378, 392, 397, 402–403

Apithy, Sourou-Migan, 28, 29, 203

Atacora peoples, 28, 352

authoritarianism. See patrimonialism

Bada, Georges, 403n.5

Baland, Jean-Marie, 9, 350

Bangladesh, institutional capacity data, 95–101

banking sector:

key deficiencies, 56–58

in Marxist-Leninist regime era, 31, 45, 307–308, 355

trade financing, 49, 50

Bardhan, Pranab, 130

Barhoumi, Karim, 119, 121

Bariba ethnic group, 22, 23–24, 26–27, 28, 351, 352

Battese, George E., 217

Bayart, Jean-François, 259

Bénin Control (formerly PVI), 37, 70n.34

Bensassi, Sami, 320

Big Men governance. See patrimonialism

Blair, Graeme, 145

Boni Yayi, Thomas:

political relationships, 33–34, 36, 37, 38–39, 150, 152, 360, 402

reform initiatives, 78, 195–196, 264

Botea, Ioana, 373

Bratton, Michael, 384

budgetary deficit, 68, 71–74

budget-making process, 113, 232

Buhari, Muhammadu, 309, 312, 317, 336

Burkina Faso:

cotton sector productivity, 54–55, 167–168, 169, 173, 191, 203, 363

institutional capacity data, 89–95

trade relations with Benin, 22

Burundi, 18, 220, 223

business environment:

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

good governance indicators, 3, 4

informal institutions, 9, 108, 124, 310, 338–339, 357–358, 379

informal trade with Nigeria and, 53, 80, 314

international ranking for, 313–314, 392

key informants’ views on, 115

politics affecting. See business-politics nexus

reform proposal (Hong Kong entrepôt model), 337–338

business-politics nexus. See also corruption and cronyism

campaign finance study. See campaign finance and state capture

generally, 35–36, 39–40

illegal trade with Nigeria and, 53, 80

public appointment of businessmen’s relatives, 133, 147, 150

public procurement contracts, 133, 147, 149–150, 152, 402

Talon’s path to Presidency illustrating, 33–34, 36–38, 152, 360

Calvo, Ernesto, 161

Cambodia, institutional capacity data, 95–101

Cameroon, 89–95, 224

campaign finance and state capture:

contracts between firms and politicians, 147–150

contracts between politicians and voters, 150

dataset and methodology, 136–142

descriptive statistics, 142–145

electoral competition data (2015 elections), 156–157

electoral uncertainty, effect on state capture strategy, 129–130, 133–134, 150–155

introduction to study, 129–135, 358–359

list experiment, 145–147

network analysis of study findings, 160–165, 359–361

regulatory reform, scope for, 391–392

theory and testable hypotheses, 135–136

CARDERs (rural development agencies), 183, 186, 187, 188, 189, 195, 197

cars, re-exports of. See used car re-exports

Carsten, Paul, 330

cashew production, 55, 61, 394

CFDT (Compagnie Française pour le Développement des Fibres Textiles), 174, 179–180, 182, 183–184, 185, 188, 191, 198, 200, 208

Ch, Rafael, 135

Chau, Leung Chuen, 337n.14

child mortality rate, 79

Cissé, Mohammed, 31

civil servants, 6, 10, 118, 245, 377, 389

clientelism. See business-politics nexus; corruption and cronyism

climate change, 210, 299, 388

CNPC (Conseil National des Producteurs de Coton), 195

Coelli, Timothy J., 217

‘collective fields’, 30

colonial era, 21, 28–29, 176–179, 200–201, 251, 307

Comby, Joseph, 260, 289

Commons, John R., 208

commune elections. See campaign finance and state capture

Congacou, Tahirou, 203

construction and utilities sector, 47

consumption bias in aggregate spending, 64–67

Corey-Boulet, Robbie, 37

corporate income tax, 69, 70, 224, 232–233

corruption and cronyism. See also business-politics nexus

anti-corruption initiatives, 37–38, 39–40, 115, 116, 378, 392, 397, 402–403

by Big Men governors. See patrimonialism

campaign finance study. See campaign finance and state capture

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

generally, 5, 356–357, 378, 390

informal cross-border trade with Nigeria and, 53, 80, 310, 326, 336, 374–375, 377, 390

international rankings for, 20, 392, 402

in judicial system, 38, 40–41, 113

key informants’ views on, 112, 113–114, 115, 118, 123

in Marxist-Leninist regime era, 31, 355–356, 360, 384

scandals, 31, 38n.8, 149–150, 352, 355–356, 360, 403n.5

Côte d’Ivoire, 54–55, 89–95, 167n.6, 224

cotton sector:

climate vulnerability, 174, 176, 202, 210, 388

exports data, 50–51, 53–54, 199

external factors affecting performance, 80, 170–174, 202, 207, 210, 388–389

GVs and GRVCs (farmers’ groups), 185–186, 187, 189, 195, 209

historical development. See cotton sector, historical development

institutional weaknesses, 174–175, 198, 200–201, 210, 362–364

long-term development issues, 201–203, 210–211, 387, 394

ODA (overseas development assistance) for, 183, 186–187, 188, 190, 200–201, 209

operational activities, 169

performance under Talon administration, 197, 401–402

productivity data. See cotton sector, productivity data

re-exports of cotton cloth, 315–316, 324–325, 331–332

side-selling problem, 174–175, 195

Talon’s interests in, 33–34, 36, 190, 192n.46, 196, 339, 362, 364

cotton sector, historical development:

pre-colonial period to 1949, 175–179

1949–60, 179–180

1961–70, 180–182, 208

1971–81, 183–186, 208–209

1981–91, 186–190, 208–209

1992–99, 190–194, 209

2000–07, 194–196, 209

2008 to present, 196–197, 209–211

productivity over time. See cotton sector, productivity data

summary of, 197–198, 199, 203, 208, 361–362, 387

cotton sector, productivity data:

cross-country comparisons, 54–55, 167–168, 169, 173, 363

current economic contribution, 166, 197, 361, 364, 401

over time, 167–168, 173, 187–188, 189, 191, 362–363

COVID-19 pandemic, xxii, 400, 401

cronyism. See corruption and cronyism

cross-border trade with Nigeria. See informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

Cruz, Cesi, 162

Cui, Larry Q., 214

customs duties:

ECOWAS membership restricting, 69

on re-exports to Nigeria, 121, 333–334

special regimes for trade with Nigeria, 308, 311–312, 322–325, 328, 376

Dahl, Robert A., 134

Dahomey, Kingdom of, 17, 21, 306

Dahomey, Republic of, 29–30, 307

Daniels, Lisa, 171n.8, 172

debt, national, 68, 71–74

Deininger, Klaus, 301

Delpeuch, Claire, 175

democracy. See also elections; patrimonialism; political system

campaign finance study. See campaign finance and state capture

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

Democratic Renewal era (1990–2016), 32–33, 351–352, 355–356, 360, 384

ethnic groups’ political representation, 25–27

independence era, 29

international ranking for, 392, 402

political rights and freedoms, 29, 33, 114, 396, 402

tax mobilisation and, 230

demographic trends, 17, 23–24, 74–75, 79

Dendi ethnic group, 23–24, 25, 26–27

departmental elections. See campaign finance and state capture

direct taxation:

corporate income tax, 69, 70, 224, 232–233

personal income tax, 69, 224

donor assistance. See ODA (overseas development assistance)

Dossou-Yovo, Koffi, 357n.2

Ebeke, Christian, 234

economic development, history of:

Benin-Nigeria trade relations, 22, 40, 304, 306–309, 342

cotton sector. See cotton sector, historical development

growth performance by era, 44–46

land reforms. See land reforms

Marxist-Leninist regime (1972–90). See Kérékou, Mathieu (and Kérékou administration)

pre-colonial era, 17, 21–23, 40, 175–176, 306–307

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs, 1989–99), 45, 65, 391

economic development constraints:

in agricultural sector, 55, 344, 354

banking sector deficiencies, 56–58

budgetary deficit, 68, 71–74

climate change, 210, 299, 388

colonial era legacy, 21, 28

corruption and cronyism. See corruption and cronyism

in cotton sector. See cotton sector

education system deficiencies. See education system

ethnic tensions, 18, 28, 351–352

infrastructure deficiencies, 58–59, 71, 79, 354, 355, 395, 397

natural resources, lack of, 18, 22, 228, 229, 386

Nigerian trade dependency. See under informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

north-south divide, 32–33, 40, 58n.10, 78, 355, 380, 388, 395

ODA (overseas development assistance) dependency, 64, 72, 73–74, 81, 355, 383, 390–391

overview of, 56, 79–81

political instability, 36–37, 38–39, 351–353, 383–386

slave trade legacy, 18–21, 22, 353

economic growth and development:

agricultural diversification strategy requirement, 55, 344, 354, 393–395, 397

constraints on. See economic development constraints

data on, 43–47, 75, 82, 354, 361, 400–401

FDI (foreign direct investment), 72, 73, 233, 383, 389, 395

foreign trade. See exports; imports; trade relations

history of. See economic development, history of

key drivers. See cotton sector; informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

ODA. See ODA (overseas development assistance)

productivity. See productivity

prospects under Talon administration, 39, 396–398, 400–403

public revenue and expenditure. See government expenditure; tax mobilisation

social matters. See labour market; poverty and inequality

structural change, 46–50, 79, 393–396

ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States), 62n.17, 69, 233, 308, 311, 336

education system:

literacy and numeracy rates, 76–77, 120–121, 355

post-primary education, 77–78, 79, 354–355

primary education, 77, 355, 357, 386

reforms, 39, 78, 79, 395–396, 397

teachers, 6, 77, 78, 388, 391

elections:

campaign finance study. See campaign finance and state capture

electoral code reform (2019), 39, 131n.3, 361

procedural reforms, 131n.3, 132

Talon’s path to Presidency, 33–34, 36–38, 152, 360

2023 parliamentary elections, 402

electricity system infrastructure, 58, 79, 397

elite capture. See corruption and cronyism

Equatorial Guinea, tax mobilisation, 223

Estur, Gérald, 197

Ethiopia, land tenure system, 286–287, 301

ethnic diversity:

data on, 23–25

national sentiment, key informants’ views on, 115

north-south divide, 32–33, 40, 58n.10, 78, 355, 380, 388, 395

origins of, 17

political coalitions of ethnic groups, 18, 28, 33, 36, 351–352, 382

political representation of ethnic groups, 25–27

trade implications, 22, 24, 40, 306, 307, 310, 351

Eurobond issues, 72n.38, 73n.42, 401

exchange rates, 62–64, 171, 312, 313, 344, 389, 395

excise duties, 69

expenditure. See government expenditure

exports:

agricultural exports, diversification strategy requirement, 55, 344, 354, 393–395, 397

composition of, 60–61, 320–321

cotton exports, 50–51, 53–54, 199

exchange rates, 62–64, 171, 312, 313, 344, 389, 395

growth, contribution to, 61

parallelism with imports, 59–60

re-exports. See informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

external finance:

FDI (foreign direct investment), 72, 73, 233, 383, 389, 395

ODA. See ODA (overseas development assistance)

Fage, John D., 21–22, 22–23

farming. See agricultural sector

FAS (Fonds Autonome de Stabilisation et de Soutien des Prix des Produits Agricoles), 186, 187

FDI (foreign direct investment), 72, 73, 233, 383, 389, 395

financial sector. See banking sector

Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge, 366

Fon-Adja ethnic group, 23–24, 25, 26–27, 28, 352

food insecurity and malnutrition, 79, 298–299

foreign aid. See ODA (overseas development assistance)

foreign direct investment (FDI), 72, 73, 233, 383, 389, 395

Frankel, Jeffrey A., 228

French colonial era, 21, 28–29, 176–179, 200–201, 251, 307

frozen poultry re-exports, 317, 318, 325, 331–332

FSS (Fonds de Stabilisation et de Soutien des Prix des Produits Agricoles), 188–189, 193

Fujiwara, Thomas, 136

Fulani (Peuls) ethnic group, 23–24, 25, 26–27

FUPRO (Fédération des Producteurs du Bénin), 190, 194, 195

Garcia, Maria Melody, 230

geography of Benin, 15–16, 105, 177

Ghana, 22, 89–95

girls’ participation in education, 77–78

Goldstein, Markus, 301, 372, 374

Golub, Stephen S., 52, 83, 320, 337n.13

good governance indicators, 3, 4

Goun ethnic group, 25, 26–27, 28

‘Governance and the Law’ (World Bank report), 4

government expenditure. See also tax mobilisation

budgetary deficit, 68, 71–74

consumption bias in aggregate spending, 64–67

data on, 68, 70–71, 73

infrastructure development, 58–59, 71, 79, 354, 355, 395, 397

public procurement contracts, 133, 147, 149–150, 152, 402

public services provision, 67, 70–71, 81, 235

Graham, Benjamin A.T., 162

growth and development. See economic growth and development

Gua (or Otamari) ethnic group, 23–25, 26–27

GVs and GRVCs (farmers’ groups), 185–186, 187, 189, 195, 209

Haile, Fiseha, 47–48

Haldenwang, Christian von, 230

Hamani, Tidjani, 3n.902

Hausa ethnic group, 306, 307, 310

healthcare, 79, 388

Heilbrunn, John R., 304, 308

higher education, 78, 79

historical case studies, 4–5

Holden, Stein T., 301

Hong Kong entrepôt model, 337–338

Hougni, Alexis, 202

Houngbédji, Adrien, 36, 37, 39

household consumption data, 65–66

human rights, 29, 33, 114, 396, 402

Ianchovichina, Elena, 119–121

illegal trade, Benin-Nigeria border. See informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

Imai, Kosuke, 145

imports:

composition of, 60–61, 321–322

customs duties. See customs duties

exchange rates, 62–64, 171, 312, 313, 344, 389, 395

parallelism with exports, 59–60

petroleum products from Nigeria. See petroleum products smuggling from Nigeria

PVI (Programme de Vérification des Importations), 33–34, 37, 70n.34

re-exports. See informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

independence, 29

indirect taxation:

customs duties. See customs duties

excise duties, 69

VAT (value-added tax), 69, 70, 224, 365

inequality. See poverty and inequality

infant mortality rate, 79

informal cross-border trade with Nigeria:

competition with Togo for. See Togo, informal trade with Nigeria

corruption associated with, 53, 80, 310, 326, 336, 374–375, 377, 390

cotton cloth re-exports, 315–316, 324–325, 331–332

customs duties and. See customs duties

economic sectors harmed by, 342–343, 376

employment effects. See informal labour market

frozen poultry re-exports, 317, 318, 325, 331–332

GDP contribution, 51, 52, 59–61, 69n.29, 80, 83–84, 323, 331–335

formal trade figures compared, 320–322, 375

history of Benin-Nigeria trade relations, 22, 40, 304, 306–309, 342

institutional weaknesses driving, 305, 309–310, 338–339, 357–358

macro-economic and exchange rate policies driving, 62–64, 312, 313, 336, 388–389

petroleum products smuggling. See petroleum products smuggling from Nigeria

port inefficiencies driving, 313–314, 338, 375

reform strategies

for administrative authorities, 343–344, 377–378

for economic actors, 344–345

Hong Kong entrepôt model proposal, 337–338

rice re-exports, 316–317, 318, 324, 325, 326, 331–332

social organisation of, 325–326

tariff differentials driving, 51–52, 233–234, 305–306, 310–312, 353, 375, 387

tax evasion associated with, 69, 80, 333–335, 336, 377, 390

used car re-exports. See used car re-exports

vulnerability to economic shocks in Nigeria, 52–53, 57, 75, 305, 317, 318, 336, 376

data illustrating, 60, 63–64, 84–85, 318–319

vulnerability to trade protection crackdowns, 80, 308–309, 317, 318, 330, 335–336, 388–389

border closure (2019–20), 52, 377n.8, 398, 402

informal institutions, 9, 108, 124, 310, 338–339, 357–358, 379

informal labour market:

data on, 49, 83–84, 310, 332

as economic development constraint, 80, 124, 388

generally, 67n.27, 79, 353, 354

institutional capacity:

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

good governance indicators, 3, 4

in-depth studies of, 127–128. See also campaign finance and state capture; cotton sector; informal cross-border trade with Nigeria; land reforms; tax mobilisation

informal institutions, 9, 108, 124, 310, 338–339, 357–358, 379

institutional diagnostic findings. See institutional diagnostic findings

‘institutions’ term, 9

previous studies, 119–123

public trust in institutions, 18–21, 38, 40–41, 352–353, 390

qualitative survey on. See institutional capacity, key informants’ views

institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons:

better-performing developing countries, 95–99

conclusions, 99–101, 356–358

dataset and methodology, 88–89

on interpersonal trust and public trust in institutions, 18–21

neighbouring countries, 89–95

tax mobilisation. See tax mobilisation, cross-country comparisons

institutional capacity, key informants’ views:

average scores, 109, 110–111

conclusions, 118–119

disparities between informant groups, 116–118, 125

on informal institutions, 108

on institutional strengths, 113, 114–115

on institutional weaknesses, 106–107, 111–112, 113–114

methodology, 101–104, 108, 109

on reform initiatives, 115–116, 197, 357

survey implementation, 104–105

institutional diagnostic findings:

deep factors explaining deficiencies, 258, 380, 381–382. See also patrimonialism

key institutional deficiencies, 123–124, 356–358, 378–379, 381–382

limitations of study, xxii, 349–351

proximate causes of deficiencies, 258, 380–383

reform proposals mapped to deficiencies, 391–396

Talon administration, reform prospects under, 39, 396–398, 400–403

Institutional Diagnostic Project:

background, 2–7

development, 2, 7–8

methodology, xxii, 9–10, 88–89, 101–104, 379–380

interpersonal trust, 18–21, 353

Interprofessional Cotton Association (AIC), 194–195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 361–362, 401–402

IRCT (Institut de Recherche du Coton et des Textiles Exotiques), 179, 181, 182, 183–184, 185

Isyaku, Shuaibu Shittu, 307

jobs market. See labour market

judicial system. See also rule of law

corruption concerns, 38, 40–41, 113

inefficiencies, 57, 387

land title disputes and, 257

Kenya, 18–19

Kérékou, Mathieu (and Kérékou administration):

agricultural policy, 30, 45, 185

corruption scandals, 31, 355–356, 360, 384

cotton sector tax controversy, 193

downfall (1990–91) and re-election (1996), 31–33, 192

Nigeria, relations with, 309

ODA (overseas development assistance), 31, 45, 186

path to Presidency, 30, 185n.35, 203

Khan, Adnan Q., 235

Khan, Mushtaq, 3

Kitschelt, Herbert, 134, 161

Kouandoté, Maurice, 184n.35, 203

Kumbhakar, Subal C., 215, 216, 220

labour market:

agricultural labour force, 298

informal employment. See informal labour market

productivity data, 47–50, 82, 354

public sector workers. See public sector

trade unions, 29–30, 243

youth employment, 74, 310

Land and Domain Code 2013 (land titling regime):

adoption and implementation, 249–250, 270–272, 278–283, 287

amendments, 116, 272–273, 275–277, 291, 354, 369

cadastral system problems, 279, 286–287, 291, 371, 372–373

general appraisal, 57, 124, 283–285, 288–291, 358, 370–374, 395

inclusiveness concerns, 285–286, 291, 371–372

key informants’ views on, 114

main provisions, 273–275, 368–370

MCA-Benin led research for (mid-2000s), 263, 264–270, 278

PFRs (Plans Foncier Rural) under, 270, 271–272, 275, 280–281, 282, 371, 373

transition period problems, 287–288, 291, 371

women’s land tenure insecurity, 300, 302, 373

land reforms:

chronology of, 264, 367–369

‘collective fields’ policy (1960s), 30, 181n.28

colonial era system, 251

generally, 247–249, 288, 299–300

global reform. See Land and Domain Code 2013

institutional weaknesses triggering, 252–259

rural area initiatives (1990s to mid-2000s), 261–263, 279–280, 368

PFRs. See PFRs (Plans Foncier Rural, rural land use plans)

Rural Land Law (2007), 249, 263, 267, 280, 300, 371

urban area initiatives (1990s), 259–261

Laos, institutional capacity data, 95–101

Lawin, Kotchikpa G., 300

laws as ‘institutions,’ 9

Lesotho, 18–19, 220

Lewis, Arthur, 3

literacy and numeracy rates, 76–77, 120–121, 355

local elections. See campaign finance and state capture

Lokpa and Yao ethnic groups, 23–24, 25, 26–27

Maga, Hubert, 29, 184n.35, 203

Malawi, 18–19, 220, 224

Mali, cotton sector productivity, 54–55, 167n.6, 363

malnutrition, 79, 298–299

manufacturing sector, 47–49

maps of Benin, 16, 105, 177

Marxist-Leninist regime (1972–90). See Kérékou, Mathieu (and Kérékou administration)

Mathieu, Paul, 257

Meredith, Martin, 31, 32

microfinance and microcredit, 56–57

Minot, Nicholas, 171n.8, 172

Monga, Célestin, 384

Mookherjee, Dilip, 130

Morillon, Virginie, 332

Murillo, Maria Victoria, 161

National Conference (1990), 31

national debt, 68, 71–74

natural resources, lack of, 18, 22, 228, 229, 386

neo-patrimonialism. See patrimonialism

nepotism. See corruption and cronyism

Newman, Carol, 301

Niger, 22, 89

Nigeria:

Biafra War, 307

economic volatility, 52–53, 63, 66, 75, 84–85, 305, 312, 318–319, 336

institutional capacity data, 89–95

oil subsidies, 52, 312–313, 330, 375, 388–389

‘resource curse’ in, 310, 335

tax mobilisation, 223, 224

trade relations with Benin. See informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

trade relations with Togo. See Togo, informal trade with Nigeria

WAEMU and ECOWAS non-membership, 308, 336

non-performing loans (NPLs), 57

North, Douglass, 3, 9

north-south divide, 32–33, 40, 58n.10, 78, 355, 380, 388, 395

NPLs (non-performing loans), 57

numeracy and literacy rates, 76–77, 120–121, 355

Nunn, Nathan, 18

Obasanjo, Olusegun, 309

OCAD (Office de Commercialisation Agricole du Dahomey), 180n.26, 182, 185

ODA (overseas development assistance):

cotton sector support, 183, 186–187, 188, 190, 200–201, 209

dependency on, 64, 72, 73–74, 81, 355, 383, 390–391

in Marxist-Leninist regime era, 31, 45, 186

sanctions not imposed by donors, 392–393

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs, 1989–99), 45, 65, 391

tax mobilisation and, 229–230, 367

oil products smuggling. See petroleum products smuggling from Nigeria

oligarchs. See patrimonialism

ONS (Office Nationale de Stabilization et de Soutien des Prix aux Producteurs), 193, 196, 197

opacity of public decision-making, 113–114, 119, 124, 357, 379

Otamari (or Gua) ethnic group, 23–25, 26–27

overseas aid. See ODA (overseas development assistance)

palm oil products, 166n.2, 180n.26, 301, 306–307

Pardelli, Giuliana, 135

patrimonialism (Big Men governance):

business dimension. See business-politics nexus

coalitions and instability under, 18, 28, 33, 36, 351–352, 382, 389

power struggles analysed, 37, 38–39, 385–386

as deep factor explaining institutional deficiencies, 383–386

specific negative effects, 386–391

defined, 34–35, 384

in Democratic Renewal era (1990–2016), 32–33, 351–352, 355–356, 360, 384

in independence era, 29–30

pre-colonial origins, 17, 21, 22–23

Talon’s adoption of Big Man style, 34, 353, 396–397

Perret, Christophe, 332

personal income tax, 69, 224

petroleum products smuggling from Nigeria:

Dutch disease effect, 343, 353, 376

extent and economic contribution, 319–320, 330–331, 332

Nigerian oil subsidies driving, 52, 312–313, 330, 375, 388–389

tax revenue loss, 334

Peuls (Fulani) ethnic group, 23–24, 25, 26–27

PFRs (Plans Foncier Rural, rural land use plans):

definition and methodology, 261–263, 286, 300, 368

empirical studies of, 300–302

inclusion in global land reform proposals, 264–265, 267–269, 279–280, 282–283

Institut Géographique National’s role respecting, 281–282

under Land and Domain Code system, 270, 271–272, 275, 280–281, 282, 371, 373

Piermay, Jean-Luc, 257

pineapple production, 55, 344, 354, 374, 393–395, 398

political history of Benin:

pre-colonial era, 17, 21–23, 40, 175–176, 306–307

colonial era, 21, 28–29, 176–179, 200–201, 251

post-independence era instability (1944–72), 28–30, 44–45, 180, 184n.35, 203, 384

Marxist-Leninist regime (1972–90). See Kérékou, Mathieu (and Kérékou administration)

Democratic Renewal era (1990–2016), 32–33, 351–352, 355–356, 360, 384

Talon era (2016– ). See Talon, Patrice (and Talon administration)

political system:

administrative units (departments and communes), 15, 104n.4, 105, 177, 251

business and. See business-politics nexus; campaign finance and state capture

coalitions of ethnic groups, 18, 28, 33, 36, 351–352, 382

electoral code reform (2019), 39, 131n.3, 361

ethnic groups’ representation, 25–27

patrimonialism. See patrimonialism

political parties, 38–39

post-Washington consensus, 3

Poulton, Colin, 174n.12

poultry re-exports, 317, 318, 325, 331–332

poverty and inequality:

consumption patterns, impact on, 66–67

data on, 75–76, 356

food insecurity and malnutrition, 79, 298–299

infant mortality rate, 79

literacy and numeracy rates, 76–77, 120–121, 355

north-south divide, 32–33, 40, 58n.10, 78, 355, 380, 388, 395

population growth driving, 74–75

pre-colonial era, 17, 21–23, 40, 175–176, 306–307

primary education, 77, 355, 357, 386

productivity:

of agricultural sector, 47–49, 79–80, 298, 354

of cotton sector. See cotton sector, productivity data

labour productivity data, 47–50, 82, 354

total factor productivity growth, 46–47, 79, 82

Programme de Vérification des Importations (PVI), 33–34, 37, 70n.34

public debt, 68, 71–74

public revenue and expenditure. See government expenditure; tax mobilisation

public sector:

agencification reforms, 243–245

civil servants, 6, 10, 118, 245, 377, 389

education system. See education system

expenditure on, 67, 70–71, 81, 235

healthcare, 79, 388

inefficiencies generally, 357, 378, 379

key informants’ views on, 110–111, 118, 122, 123–124

public procurement contracts, 133, 147, 149–150, 152, 402

reform initiatives, 115–116

tax administration deficiencies. See tax mobilisation

public trust in institutions, 18–21, 38, 40–41, 352–353, 390

PVI (Programme de Vérification des Importations), 33–34, 37, 70n.34

re-export trade. See informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

religious diversity, 25

Renouveau Démocratique (Democratic Renewal) era (1990–2016), 32–33, 351–352, 355–356, 360, 384

rent-seeking. See corruption and cronyism

rice re-exports, 316–317, 318, 324, 325, 326, 331–332

Robinson, James, 3, 5

Rodrik, Dani, 7

rule of law:

corruption and cronyism. See corruption and cronyism

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

frequent changes of law, 380, 383, 391. See also cotton sector, historical development; land reforms

illegal trade with Nigeria, rule of law implications, 53

judicial system. See judicial system

laws as ‘institutions,’ 9

opacity of public decision-making, 113–114, 119, 124, 357, 379

public trust in institutions, 18–21, 38, 40–41, 352–353, 390

Rural Land Law (2007), 249, 263, 267, 280, 300. See also land reforms

Rwanda, land tenure system, 286–287, 301

Sánchez-Talanquer, Mariano, 135

SAPs (Structural Adjustment Programmes, 1989–99), 45, 65, 391

SARAs (semi-autonomous revenue authorities), 234, 235, 366, 367

Sardan, Olivier de, 255

Sasse, Allegresse, 330

SATEC (Société d’Aide Technique et de Cooperation), 182, 183–184, 185, 200

schools. See education system

SDI (Société de Distribution Internationale), 190–191

semi-autonomous revenue authorities (SARAs), 234, 235, 366, 367

Shapley, Lloyd S., 36

Shubik, Martin, 36

side-selling in cotton sector, 174–175, 195

slavery and slave trade, 17, 18, 22–23, 306, 353

smuggling, Benin-Nigeria border. See informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

SOCAD (Société de Commercialisation et Crédit Agricole du Dahomey), 185, 186

social inequality. See poverty and inequality

socialism, 30

SODECO (Société de Développement du Coton), 196

Soglo, Christophe, 184n.35, 203

Soglo, Nicéphore, 32, 33, 36, 190, 191, 309, 402

SONACEB (Société Nationale pour la Commercialisation et l’Exportation du Bénin), 186, 187

SONACO (Société Nationale Agricole pour le Coton), 183–184, 184–185, 186, 200

SONAGRI (Société Nationale d’Agriculture), 186, 187

SONAPRA (Société Nationale pour la Production Agricole), 187, 188–189, 190–191, 192–193, 195–196, 197, 198, 200, 362

south-north divide, 32–33, 40, 58n.10, 78, 355, 380, 388, 395

Souza, Archbishop Isodore de, 32

state capacity. See also public sector; rule of law

cross-country comparisons. See institutional capacity, cross-country comparisons

local-level, 132

pre-colonial era, 21, 22–23

tax mobilisation as proxy for, 364–365, 367, 383

Stotsky, Janet Gale, 218

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs, 1989–99), 45, 65, 391

structural change to economy, 46–50, 79, 393–396

Talon, Patrice (and Talon administration):

agencification reforms, 243–245

anti-corruption initiatives, 37–38, 39–40, 115, 116, 397, 402–403

Big Man governance style, 34, 353, 396–397

cotton sector interests, 33–34, 36, 190, 192n.46, 196, 339, 362, 364

cotton sector reforms, 197, 401–402

economic growth, prospects under, 39, 396–398, 400–403

electoral code reform (2019), 39, 131n.3, 361

land reforms, 116, 272–273, 276–277, 279, 369

path to Presidency, 33–34, 36–38, 152, 360

tax administration reforms, 235–236, 236–237

Tamini, Lota D., 300

Tanzania, xxi–xxii, 30, 95–101

tariff policy, 51–52, 233–234, 305–306, 310–312, 353

tax mobilisation. See also government expenditure

administrative reforms (actual and proposed), 234–236, 236–237, 243–246, 366, 367

budget-making process, 113, 232

cross-country comparisons. See tax mobilisation, cross-country comparisons

determinants of, 228–232

illegal taxation, 390

inefficiencies, explanations of, 70, 80–81, 123–124, 232–233, 366

informal trade with Nigeria and, 69, 80, 333–335, 336, 377, 390

revenue data, 68, 69–70, 212–214, 218–222, 236, 402

as state capacity proxy, 364–365, 367, 383

Talon administration reforms, 403

tariff policy, 51–52, 233–234, 305–306, 310–312, 353

tax incentives, 232–233

understaffing problem, 366, 383, 386

tax mobilisation, cross-country comparisons:

country rankings, 220, 223, 225

introduction to study, 212–215, 365

limitations of study, 242, 367

methodology (stochastic frontier analysis), 215–218

pairwise correlation between interest variables, 218

summary, 236–237

tax effort by tax type, 224, 226–227

three-stage estimation results, 220, 221–222

Togo comparison. See Togo, tax mobilisation

teachers, 6, 77, 78, 388, 391

telecommunications infrastructure, 58–59, 79, 355

Togo, informal trade with Nigeria:

Beninese trade, effects on, 319, 334–335

cotton cloth re-exports, 315–316

customs regime for, 323

frozen poultry re-exports, 317, 318

generally, 305

rice re-exports, 316–317

tax revenue effect, 234, 333–335, 365

used car re-exports, 314–315, 328–329, 333–334

Togo, tax mobilisation:

Benin comparisons, data on, 213, 218–220, 223–224, 365

Beninese tax regime compared, 212, 213–214, 232–233, 242–243, 365–367

informal trade with Nigeria, tax revenue effect, 234, 333–335, 365

total factor productivity growth, 46–47, 79, 82

tourism sector, 61

trade relations. See also exports; imports

exchange rates, 62–64, 171, 312, 313, 344, 389, 395

with Nigeria. See informal cross-border trade with Nigeria

pre-colonial era, 17, 21–22, 23, 40, 306–307

trade financing, 49, 50

trade unions, 29–30, 243

transatlantic slave trade, 17, 18, 23, 306, 353

transparency deficiencies in public decision-making, 113–114, 119, 124, 357, 379

transport infrastructure, 58–59, 79, 354, 395

United States, cotton sector subsidies, 170

used car re-exports:

downturn in trade (2015–17), 309, 314–315, 324–325, 330

employment effects, 332

GDP contribution, 52, 331, 333–334, 335

increase in trade (2012–15), 318

organisation of trade, 325–326, 327–330

utilities and construction sector, 47

VAT (value-added tax), 69, 70, 224, 365

Velasco, Andrés, 7

Vietnam, 95–101, 301

WAEMU (West African Economic and Monetary Union):

banking sector supervision, 56

fixed exchange rate commitment, 45, 62, 312, 395

Nigeria’s non-membership, 308, 336

tax and tariff policies, 52, 69, 212, 232, 233, 234, 308, 353

Walle, Nicolas van de, 384

Wantchekon, Leonard, 136

Waranga people, 22

Washington Consensus, 2

Wilkinson, Steven I., 134, 161

WoldeMariam, Asegedech, 218

women:

female cotton workers, representation of, 187, 189

girls’ participation in education, 77–78

inheritance rights enforcement, 255–256

institutional capacity, elite women’s views, 116–118

land tenure insecurity, 300, 302, 373

literacy rates, 77

malnutrition, 298–299

Wren-Lewis, Liam, 373–374

Yao and Lokpa ethnic groups, 23–24, 25, 26–27

Yayi Boni, Thomas. See Boni Yayi, Thomas

Yemadje, Rolland H., 301, 302

Yoruba ethnic group:

generally, 23–24, 26–27, 28, 352

trade relationship with Nigeria, 22, 40, 306, 307, 310, 351

Young, Crawford, 35

youth employment, 74, 310

Zinsou, Émile Derlin, 184n.35, 203, 360

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