The racial affinities of the widely distributed (palearctic) ringed snake, Natrix natrix were assessed using a large number of phenotypic characters from a wide range of features. These characters show a considerable amount of complex geographic variation which is further complicated by geographic variation in the extent of their sexual, ontogenetic and local variation. Nevertheless, extensive analysis of the data using univariate statistics, numerical taxonomy and a wide range of multivariate statistics allowed the primary patterns of ‘racial’ differentiation to be elucidated.

The dominant feature of the racial affinities is the division of the majority of the complex into distinct eastern and western forms which meet along a ‘hybrid zone’. The nature of this zone is analysed in detail and discussed in relation to aspects of evolutionary theory such as gene flow. The island populations of Corsica and Sardinia are also extremely divergent. The evolution and taxonomy of the four primary subdivisions of the complex (east, west, Corsica, Sardinia) are discussed in relation to Pleistocene history, evolutionary theory, species concepts (phenetic and biological) and subspecies concepts, etc. These four subdivisions border on the species rank and may be regarded by some as semispecies. They are formally recognised as subspecies. Attention is drawn to the difficulties of intraspecific taxonomy and the arbitrary nature of the four taxa given formal recognition.

The spider fauna of Shetland is described on the basis of collections made in 1974–75 and earlier published and unpublished data. The number of species recorded is increased from 35 to 90. Work on Ronas Hill and elsewhere has shown that Shetland has a substantial array of montane spiders, many of them occurring at much lower elevations than is normal in mainland Britain: a height of 400 m on Shetland is roughly equivalent—in terms of the spider community—to one of 900 m in the Cairngorms. Shetland appears to lack, however, a number of the arctic-alpine species present at high levels in mainland Scotland and the Faroes. The spider fauna of moorland in Shetland is shown to have closely similar composition to that of a moorland area in the Pennines, although the latter has more species. Other habitats discussed include sand dunes in South Mainland and serpentine heaths in Unst.

The new information permits for the first time assessment of the spider fauna of Shetland in its zoogeographic context. Almost all of the species found in Shetland, the Faroes and Iceland are present in both Scotland and Fennoscandia; however, only two-thirds of the Faroes species and less than half of the Iceland species are also found in Shetland.

Consideration of the Pleistocene history of the area permits analysis of the origins of the faunas. Some species adapted to arctic conditions may have survived through the last glacial episode in Iceland, where there were ice-free areas, but such survival is most unlikely for the Faroes and Shetland: for Orkney the picture is unclear. There was no subsequent overland immigration to Iceland or the Faroes and little or none to Shetland, but Orkney may have received rather more of its species in this way. The rapid postglacial rise in sea level ensured that the bulk of the species in all these faunas had to colonise over water. Some species were transported by man and a few may have travelled on natural rafts, but the majority seem to have immigrated by ballooning.

Orkney probably received all its colonists from mainland Scotland and Shetland could also have done so. Immigration from Fennoscandia, however, was undoubtedly important in the case of Iceland, significant in the Faroes and possibly also contributed to the Shetland fauna. Only Iceland can be shown to have received species from Greenland.

In an Appendix the spider species recorded from Orkney, Shetland, the Faroes and Iceland are tabulated and the occurrence of these species on the Scottish mainland and in Fennoscandia and Greenland is indicated.

Loch Obisary has a narrow sea inlet to a north basin which is 45 m deep, stratified in summer and winter and joined by shallow channels to an unstratifled south basin.

Mean conductivity (25°C) and sodium measurements indicate that in summer and winter the north basin epilimnion and the south basin comprises about 50%, and the north basin hypolimnion about 80%, sea water. It is calculated that 56% of high tides enter the loch.

Vertical diffuse attenuation coefficients for blue, green and red light are the same in epilimnion and south basin, the blue coefficient being slightly higher than the red in July and much higher in January. In July the blue coefficient in the hypolimnion is lower that the red, as in clear coastal water.

Six out of 24 macrophytes, and eight epiphytes, are confined within 200 m of the sea inlet. Distribution and depth limits of those and other species are discussed in relation to substrate, water chemistry and light. The presence of a halocline in the north basin and its absence from the south basin allow a comparison to be drawn between depth limits set by water chemistry (north basin), and those predicted on the basis of light (south basin) for Potamogeton pectinatus and Nitella opaca.