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UNESCO, world heritage and human rights

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 March 2023

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak*
Affiliation:
UNESCO Chair in International Law and Cultural Heritage and Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
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Abstract

This article examines the relationship between the World Heritage Convention and international human rights law. The first part of the article draws on key phrases in Article 1 of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Constitution, which defines its purpose to elaborate on the role of human rights to UNESCO’s mandate and how developments in international human rights law over the last 75 years have been translated into the organization’s policies and programs and the implementation of the World Heritage Convention. The second part details how human rights violations related to World Heritage properties expose significant shortcomings in UNESCO’s fulfillment of its mandate and states’ compliance with international human rights norms. The third part outlines the international responsibility of various actors in respect of serious violations of human rights related to World Heritage properties. The final part identifies possible areas of reform in the operation of the World Heritage Convention that may facilitate its alignment with international human rights law and UNESCO’s adherence to its mandate.

Type
Special Section: UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention at 50
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the International Cultural Property Society

Introduction

The natural and cultural heritage and human rights are viewed as common goods in international law,Footnote 1 and their promotion should be mutually reinforcing.Footnote 2 However, recent jurisprudence by international, regional, and national courts and reports by human rights bodies highlight that conservation efforts can exacerbate or precipitate serious human rights violations, while contemporary scholarship emphasizes that this is not a new phenomenon. The Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), the “flagship” convention of the United Nations’ (UN) specialist agency in the field of culture, has come under the spotlight for its potentially adverse impact on peoples located on or near properties inscribed on the World Heritage List.Footnote 3

The year 2022 marks 50 years since the adoption of the World Heritage Convention, and it seems an opportune time to ensure that the Convention and its operational framework align with, and promote, the objectives of the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as expressed in its Constitution and the Charter of the United Nations in respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms.Footnote 4 As a specialized agency of the UN, UNESCO reinforces the objectives of its parent body.Footnote 5 Article I.1 of the UNESCO Constitution provides that its purpose is to

contribute to peace and security by promoting collaboration among nations through education, science and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language, or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations.Footnote 6

UNESCO is charged with achieving this purpose by, inter alia, “maintain[ing], increas[ing], and diffus[ing] knowledge [b]y assuring the conservation and protection of the world’s inheritance of books, works of art, and monuments of history and science, and recommending to the nations concerned the necessary international conventions.”Footnote 7 Therefore, conventions adopted under the auspices of this organization must be designed and implemented to promote this singular stated purpose.

The World Heritage Convention was prepared by UNESCO and adopted by its General Conference in 1972 pursuant to this objective and function. Consequently, the promotion of human rights is foundational to the interpretation, implementation, and operation of the Convention. However, unlike other culture conventions adopted and overseen by UNESCO,Footnote 8 neither the preparatory work nor the final text of the World Heritage Convention makes specific reference to human rights. So, while the preamble of the Convention replicates the means outlined in Article I, paragraph 2(c), it does not allude to the purpose contained in the same provision of its Constitution. This absence is particularly unusual given that the World Heritage Convention was drafted during the adoption of key international human rights instruments.Footnote 9 It is compounded by the fact that the Declaration of the UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Declaration), which was also adopted in 1972 and informed the drafting of the Convention, links the enjoyment of human rights with the protection of the natural and built environment.Footnote 10 This absence was partially addressed by the Policy Document for the Integration of a Sustainable Development Perspective into the Processes of the World Heritage Convention (WH-SDP), adopted by the General Assembly of States Parties in 2015.Footnote 11 This document indicates that states parties “should commit to uphold, respect and contribute to the implementation of the full range of international human rights standards as a pre-requisite for effectively achieving sustainable development.”Footnote 12 By comparison, recent revisions to the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention only “encourage” states parties to adopt a “human rights based approach and ensure gender-balanced participation of a wide variety of stakeholders and right-holders” in the identification, nomination, management, and protection of World Heritage sites.Footnote 13

To date, efforts to ensure implementation of these relatively modest commitments have been limited.Footnote 14 This is exacerbated by the lack of a substantive or dedicated mechanism under the existing World Heritage framework to address serious, systematic violations of international human rights and humanitarian law related to World Heritage properties. Thus, the legacy of silence on human rights in the text of the World Heritage Convention continues to date in the operation of the World Heritage governance and oversight framework, with often devastating effects. The deficiency is especially stark when compared with developments in other fora in the UN system in response to the destruction of cultural heritage on or related to World Heritage properties.Footnote 15 Resolutions by the UN Security Council and Human Rights Council were prefigured by the Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, which was adopted by UNESCO’s General Conference in 2003, following the deliberate destruction of the monumental Buddhas of Bamiyan in Afghanistan. It states that cultural heritage is important for “the cultural identity of communities, groups and individuals,” and its destruction has “adverse consequences [for] human dignity and human rights.”Footnote 16

Addressing human rights violations is complicated because of the relationship between UNESCO and the organs of the World Heritage Convention, with repeated calls for clear delineation of their roles.Footnote 17 UNESCO sponsors and adopts international instruments, like the World Heritage Convention, pursuant to Article IV.4 of its Constitution. Although adopted by UNESCO’s General Conference and the institutional cross-fertilization envisaged by the text of the Convention, it remains a treaty like any other treaty. It only binds states that have formally consented to be bound by it unless it has become customary international law in whole or part,Footnote 18 and resolutions of the General Assembly of States Parties or decisions by the World Heritage Committee only bind states parties. Likewise, the UNESCO Constitution is a treaty, and the decisions of the UNESCO General Conference and Executive Board bind member states alone. They are treaties of equal status.Footnote 19 Yet UNESCO and the World Heritage organs are enmeshed. They provide significant logistical and financial support for the operation of the World Heritage Convention. The director-general appoints the Secretariat of the World Heritage Committee, according to Article 14 of the World Heritage Convention. Since 1992, the World Heritage Centre performs the functions of the Secretariat, with staff and premises provided by UNESCO and located within its Paris headquarters. The funding provided from UNESCO’s regular program and budget is almost double that provided for the operating costs of any of the other culture conventions.Footnote 20 UNESCO translates human rights developments within the UN into its policies and programs, which are filtered through to the World Heritage Convention.

This article examines the relationship between the World Heritage Convention and international human rights law. Given the context of their adoption and continuing relationship with UNESCO, the World Heritage Convention and international human rights treaties are not self-contained regimes, operating in isolation from each other.Footnote 21 Indeed, there is near total overlap between UNESCO’s membership and the World Heritage Convention’s states parties and with the states parties to the international human rights treaties. International human rights law (treaty and customary international law) is applicable to World Heritage properties and the operation of the Convention, including the conduct of UNESCO and the World Heritage organs, states, and non-state actors. The first part of this article draws on key phrases in Article 1 of UNESCO’s Constitution, which define its purpose to elaborate on the role of human rights within UNESCO’s mandate, and how developments in international human rights law over the last 75 years have been translated into the organization’s policies and programs, and on the implementation of the World Heritage Convention. The second part of the article details how human rights violations related to World Heritage properties expose significant shortcomings in UNESCO’s fulfillment of its mandate and in states’ compliance with international human rights norms. The third part outlines the international responsibility of various actors in respect of serious violations of human rights related to World Heritage properties. The final part identifies possible areas of reform in the operation of the World Heritage Convention that may facilitate its alignment with international human rights law and UNESCO’s adherence to its mandate.

UNESCO, the World Heritage Convention, and human rights norms

Since its formation, UNESCO has participated in the formulation and promotion of key international human rights instruments.Footnote 22 The organization was actively involved in the formulation of the cultural rights provisions contained in the international covenants on human rights during the lead-up to their adoption in 1966.Footnote 23 Its early draft provisions clearly articulated the link between human rights and cultural heritage, often replicating or expanding the language contained in its Constitution.

As early as 1952, UNESCO started working on a mechanism for communications of human rights violations from individuals and groups.Footnote 24 Under its current human rights procedures, established in 1978, large-scale, systematic violations can be examined in public by the Executive Board and the General Conference.Footnote 25 However, this function has not been exercised to date. Cases of individual and specific human rights violations are examined in camera by the Committee on Conventions and Recommendations (CR Committee), which is a permanent subcommittee of the Executive Board.Footnote 26 Pursuant to the Rules of the Executive Board, its proceedings and related documentation are subject to a 20-year embargo. The mechanism’s lack of transparency makes it an anomaly among UN bodies examining human rights violations. It also is inconsistent with the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparations for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law and the Principles Relating to the Status of National Institutions (Paris Principles), which set the standard for domestic human rights bodies.Footnote 27 Both sets of principles have been adopted by the UN General Assembly.

The published records of the CR Committee’s case load for the first decade of its operation reveal that, while the preponderance of cases have involved violations of cultural rights, none are related to the World Heritage Convention.Footnote 28 This can, in part, be explained by the requirement that a communication is only admissible if it concerns a violation of human rights within UNESCO’s field of competence as related to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).Footnote 29 This restriction ignores the developments in human rights law that have occurred in the intervening 70 years since the UDHR’s adoption, which have repeatedly reaffirmed the interrelation between human rights and cultural heritage. Consequently, serious human rights violations related to World Heritage properties are being brought before international and regional human rights bodies.

Human rights and fundamental freedoms

Since the adoption of the UDHR in 1948, UNESCO, like other UN specialized agencies, has responded to the subsequent human rights-driven initiatives of its parent body. These developments in turn have been reflected in amendments to the World Heritage Convention’s Operational Guidelines. Most states parties to the World Heritage Convention are also states parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), both adopted in 1996, which translate the UDHR into legal binding obligations.Footnote 30

The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action of 1993 sought to coordinate and reinforce the UN’s work on the realization and enjoyment of human rights.Footnote 31 It recognized that specialized agencies like UNESCO “play a vital role in the formulation, promotion and implementation of human rights standards, within their respective mandates.”Footnote 32 The tenets of the Vienna Declaration were reinforced by the UN Millennium Declaration and the mainstreaming of human rights throughout the UN.Footnote 33 This commitment was reaffirmed and updated in the secretary-general’s call to action for human rights in 2020, with the guiding principle of strengthening UN leadership in “advancing the cause of human rights” and “enhanc[ing] synergies between human rights and all pillars of the work of the United Nations.”Footnote 34

In response to the Millenium Declaration, UNESCO adopted the Strategy on Human Rights in 2003Footnote 35 and signed a memorandum of understanding with the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, making coordination a priority.Footnote 36 Its Medium-Term Strategy (2022–29) has reaffirmed its commitment to a human rights-based approach to its mandate.Footnote 37 The WH-SDP references the connection between Article 1 of UNESCO’s Constitution and the World Heritage Convention and elaborates upon a human rights-based approach to the treaty’s operation.Footnote 38 The Operational Guidelines encourage states parties to adopt a “human rights based approach” to the identification, nomination, management, and protection processes of World Heritage sites.Footnote 39 The advisory bodies have also adopted policies promoting a rights-based approach to conservation.Footnote 40 By comparison, the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (CSICH) provides that “consideration will be given solely to such intangible cultural heritage as is compatible with existing international human rights instruments, as well as with the requirements of mutual respect among communities, groups, individuals, and of sustainable development.”Footnote 41

Without distinction of race

The majority of states parties to the World Heritage Convention are states parties to the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD),Footnote 42 and the International Court of Justice has held that the prohibition against racial discrimination is an obligation erga omnes. Footnote 43 Defined as UNESCO’s objective in its Constitution, the promotion of equality and prohibition of racial discrimination was elaborated in its 1978 Declaration on Racial and Racial Prejudice.Footnote 44 It was the first principle of the 1972 Stockholm Declaration and was reaffirmed in the 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action and the 2001 Durban Declaration and Programme of Action.Footnote 45 In response, UNESCO adopted an Integrated Strategy to Combat Racism, Discrimination, Xenophobia and Intolerance in 2003, which noted that the Durban Conference offered the organization the “opportunity to revitalize and reinforce” its cooperation with the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Committee on Elimination of Racial Discrimination.Footnote 46 A specific objective of this strategy is to “deepen knowledge about the development of forms of discrimination inherited from the past, notably those linked to the period of slavery and colonization and those affecting Indigenous peoples and cultural and religious minorities.”Footnote 47 The strategy is not referenced in the Operational Guidelines.

The Durban Declaration also emphasized the importance of cultural diversity and African cultural heritage, which is reflected in the African continent being a global priority in UNESCO’s Medium-Term Strategy since 1984, its Priority Africa Operational Strategy for its Implementation,Footnote 48 and the World Heritage Committee’s Global Strategy for a Representative, Balanced and Credible World Heritage List, prioritizing nominations from states parties in Africa, the Pacific, and the Caribbean.Footnote 49 Nonetheless, in 2021, only 12 percent of the World Heritage List properties were located on the African continent, compared to 41.5 percent of those on the List of World Heritage in Danger.Footnote 50

The WH-SDP indicates that states parties ensure that the conservation and management of World Heritage sites is based on the recognition of cultural diversity, inclusion, and equity, “irrespective of age, sex, disability, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status.”Footnote 51 The Operational Guidelines note that “effective” management systems “could” include “a respect for diversity, equity, gender equality and human rights and the use of inclusive and participatory planning and stakeholder consultation processes.”Footnote 52 The policies of the advisory bodies reinforce the centrality of equal treatment and non-discrimination in a rights-based approach to conservation.Footnote 53

Without distinction of race, language, or religion

In 2021, UNESCO stated that the rights of Indigenous peoples are “an integral part of efforts to upscale [its] work against racism and discrimination.”Footnote 54 It adopted the Policy on Engaging with Indigenous Peoples in 2018,Footnote 55 in response to the 2007 UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), which has been affirmed by all UN member states.Footnote 56 The Declaration requires UN specialized agencies like UNESCO to ensure Indigenous peoples’ participation on issues affecting them, including through the provision of financial and technical assistance.Footnote 57 The policy reaffirms the relevance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, equality and non-discrimination, and self-determination, participation, and free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) in its fields of operation.Footnote 58 UNESCO’s Strategy on Human Rights and the 2018 policy emphasize that the organization will coordinate its work with the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, the special rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples, and the Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.Footnote 59 These UN mechanisms have endeavored to engage UNESCO in respect of the human rights of Indigenous peoples vis-à-vis the World Heritage framework with limited success.Footnote 60

The Operational Guidelines reference the Policy on Engaging with Indigenous Peoples and the UNDRIP when encouraging states parties to ensure the participation of “right-holders” including Indigenous peoples in the identification, nomination, management, and protection processes of World Heritage properties.Footnote 61 It indicates that states parties “shall consult and cooperate in good faith” with the relevant Indigenous representative organizations to obtain their FPIC prior to the nomination and inclusion of sites on the tentative list.Footnote 62 The WH-SDP recalls Article 5 of the World Heritage Convention, the strategic objectives (the fifth “C’), and UNDRIP when emphasizing the importance of inclusive governance.Footnote 63 To this end, it calls on states parties to “ensure adequate consultations,” FPIC, and “effective participation” of Indigenous peoples in World Heritage processes that “affect their territories, lands, resources and ways of life.” In addition, they should facilitate Indigenous and local efforts to realize “equitable governance arrangements, collaborative management systems and, when appropriate, redress mechanism.” They should support initiatives fostering “shared responsibility” among Indigenous peoples and local communities and the promotion of “both universal and local values” in the management of World Heritage sites.Footnote 64

FPIC is not defined in the 2018 policy. The only elaboration in the Operational Guidelines states that it includes, “inter alia making the nominations publicly available in appropriate languages and public consultations and hearings.”Footnote 65 The nature of the participation is reflected in the Declaration of Principles to Promote International Solidarity and Cooperation to Preserve World Heritage, which commits the committee to,

[i]n the interest of recognizing global cultural diversity and equitable representation, encourage interventions from observers including local communities’ and indigenous peoples’ representatives in items concerning such groups with the prior consent of the Chairperson, and in full respect of Article 6 of the 1972 Convention before decisions are made by the Committee.Footnote 66

This concession should be contrasted with the Ethical Principles for Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage guiding the CSICH’s framework and the requirement for “free, prior, sustained and informed consent”Footnote 67 and the resolutions and policies adopted by the advisory bodies.Footnote 68 In 2021, the UN special rapporteurs on rights of Indigenous peoples, human rights and the environment, and human rights defenders expressed concern that the World Heritage Committee “has adopted commitments towards indigenous peoples on paper but in practice does not have working methods that allow indigenous peoples to participate effectively and have their voices heard in the nomination process.”Footnote 69 The special rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples has called on the World Heritage Committee to bring its practices into line with the UNDRIP.Footnote 70

Without distinction to sex

Promotion of gender equality is contained in UNESCO’s Constitution. A significant majority of the states parties to the World Heritage Convention are states parties to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).Footnote 71 The Human Rights Council has called on states to adopt a “gender-sensitive and inclusive approach” to cultural heritage protection and cultural rights.Footnote 72 UNESCO has made efforts in respect of gender mainstreaming following the Beijing Declaration on Platform for Action promoting the realization of gender equality and the human rights of women and girlsFootnote 73 and the subsequent UN initiatives including the Action Plan on Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women,Footnote 74 Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) no. 5 of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,Footnote 75 and the Guiding Principle in the Secretary-General’s 2021 Call to Action for Human Rights.Footnote 76 Gender equality is one of the two global priority areas of UNESCO’s Medium-Term Strategy and includes the promotion of the human rights of women and girls.Footnote 77 The Gender Equality Action Plan (GEAP II) (2014–21) centers on individual and institutional capacity building, with UNESCO supporting member states and the governing bodies of its normative instruments in “establishing gender-sensitive, gender-responsive and gender-transformative policies and practices in the field of heritage.”Footnote 78 Periodic reports by states parties are a performance indicator under the GEAP II.

Women and girls are disproportionately impacted by armed conflict and disasters, including climate change, affecting World Heritage properties.Footnote 79 The WH-SDP requires states parties to ensure gender equality in the “full cycle” of World Heritage processes, especially the nomination process; social and social opportunities; and full and effective participation in conservation and management of sites with equal opportunities for leadership and representation.Footnote 80 The only instance the policy references empowering women and girls is in its summary of the SDGs. It instead defaults to using the phrase “women and men” throughout when referencing gender equality. The thorny issue of “traditional practices” is addressed less than clearly.Footnote 81

The World Heritage Convention’s Operational Guidelines were amended to encourage the states parties to “ensure gender-balanced participation” in the identification, nomination, management, and protection processes of the World Heritage List and tentative list and to contribute to sustainable development objectives including “gender equality” in World Heritage processes and heritage protection and management.Footnote 82 Statements of outstanding universal value are “encouraged” to be prepared in gender-neutral language.Footnote 83 The advisory bodies have adopted a series of policies on gender equality and the empowerment of women.Footnote 84 By comparison, the CSICH’s Operational Directives are more detailed and nuanced in their integration of gender equality in the implementation of this Convention.Footnote 85 Under the Operational Directives, the states parties need to “pay special attention to the role of gender” in respect of elements inscribed on the Representative List and Urgent Safeguarding List.Footnote 86

Further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and human rights affirmed by the UN Charter’

The UN’s 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development reaffirms human rights and the environmental concerns expressed by the international community during the drafting of the World Heritage Convention 50 years ago and reinforces their interrelatedness.Footnote 87 The Human Rights Council’s resolution on the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment recognizes that it includes the right “to participate in cultural life, for present and future generations” and calls for the promotion of effective access to justice and remedies.Footnote 88 SDG no. 16 concerning the promotion of peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development includes the promotion of the rule of law and equal access to justice for all at the national and international levels and ensures “responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative” decision making at every level.Footnote 89 The 2021 Call to Action for Human Rights likewise reaffirms this commitment to effective participation and access to justice.Footnote 90 The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, adopted by UNESCO’s General Conference in 2001, promotes the interrelationship between cultural diversity, human rights, and sustainable development and explicitly references the World Heritage Convention.Footnote 91

These initiatives have informed the World Heritage Committee’s adoption of the WH-SDP in 2015 and is reflected in the language of the Nara Document on Authenticity, which was prepared in cooperation with the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) in 1994.Footnote 92 The key objective of the WH-SDP is to ensure that states parties “recognize” that World Heritage conservation strategies that promote sustainable development “embrace … the well-being of present and future generations” and are based on the “overarching” principles of human rights, equality, and sustainability over the long term.Footnote 93 It provides that states parties to the World Heritage Convention should ensure that all World Heritage processes are “compatible with and supportive of human rights” and adopt a “rights-based approach” that “promotes” World Heritage properties as “exemplary places for the application of the highest standards for the respect and realization of human rights.”Footnote 94 In addition, they should be developed with the “equitable participation of concerned people”; use the standards, safeguards, guidance tools, and operational mechanisms for nomination, assessment, management, evaluation, and reporting processes consistent with an “effective rights-based approach” of nominated and inscribed properties; and promote technical cooperation and capacity building to this end.Footnote 95 By contrast, the Operational Guidelines “encourage” states parties to mainstream these “principles” (together with UNESCO’s Policy on Engaging with Indigenous Peoples and “related policies and documents, including the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and international human rights standards”) in their programs and activities concerning the World Heritage Convention.Footnote 96 The World Heritage Convention has no dispute resolution mechanism, but, in appropriate circumstances, there may be recourse to UNESCO’s human rights mechanisms, flagged earlier. This process is in contrast to other treaties in the field like the Convention on Biological Diversity;Footnote 97 the grievance mechanisms developed by advisory bodies like the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN);Footnote 98 and human rights treaties like the ICESCR and regional human rights instruments.Footnote 99

Despite these developments in international human rights law, and the explicit recognition of their application to the work of UNESCO and the World Heritage Convention, and the commitment of the organization to cooperate with UN human rights bodies, there is no effective oversight of compliance with human rights obligations related to World Heritage properties either by UNESCO or the World Heritage framework.

World Heritage properties and human rights violations

Serious violations of human rights obligations on or related to World Heritage properties have been acknowledged by international and regional courts, UN and regional human rights bodies, and the World Heritage Committee and its advisory bodies. Violations can be precipitated or exacerbated by World Heritage nomination and inscription. They encompass a range of often interrelated circumstances including, but not limited to, armed conflict, belligerent occupation, and securitization; eviction and forced displacement; development and extractive industries; and climate change. Each circumstance has led to the adoption of normative human rights instruments relevant to the operation of the World Heritage Convention. This list is not exclusive or exhaustive. Nor are violations confined to cultural human rights. Rather, they encompass the full range of human rights and fundamental freedoms including the rights to life, housing, and self-determination and development.Footnote 100 It is important to recall that most of the states parties to the World Heritage Convention have human rights obligations in respect of human rights treaties to which they are states parties or which form part of their customary international law.

Armed conflict, belligerent occupation, and securitization

International courts like the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Court, and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and international and regional human rights bodies have found that serious violations of international human rights and international humanitarian law obligations have occurred on or related to World Heritage sites because of armed conflict and belligerent occupation for several decades. These include the Temple of Preah Vihear,Footnote 101 the old city of Jerusalem and its walls,Footnote 102 Timbuktu,Footnote 103 and the old city of Dubrovnik.Footnote 104 Related to this are human rights violations arising from the increasing securitization and militarization of territories (by state organs and private contractors, including so-called “eco-guards”) encompassing World Heritage sites – for example, Diyarbakir,Footnote 105 the Mount Hamiguitan Range,Footnote 106 Virunga National Park,Footnote 107 and Ngorongoro Conservation Area.Footnote 108 World Heritage properties are subject to the international humanitarian law and human rights norms defined as non-derogable even during armed conflict and belligerent occupation. International courts have repeatedly found that World Heritage inscription attracts international protection for cultural and religious sites. However, it is also evident that World Heritage nomination and listing has fueled armed conflict (for example, the Temple of Preah Vihear).Footnote 109

The deliberate targeting for destruction and systematic looting of World Heritage properties by combatants has exacerbated recent armed conflicts and belligerent occupation (for example, in L’viv, Aleppo, Sana’a, Timbuktu, and Dubrovnik). Intentional destruction of World Heritage sites has been condemned repeatedly by the UN Security Council. It has called for cooperation with international criminal courts to hold perpetrators accountable.Footnote 110 Related to this development is the deliberate killing and forced disappearance of heritage workers and the associated extension of protections afforded to these human rights defenders.Footnote 111 Under the SDGs, UNESCO has reported responsibility for a number of verified cases of killing, kidnapping, enforced disappearance, arbitrary detention, and torture of human rights advocates.Footnote 112

The destruction at Bamiyan in 2001 led to the adoption of the 2003 Declaration on Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, which states that “cultural heritage is an important component of the cultural identity of communities, groups and individuals, and of social cohesion, so that its intentional destruction may have adverse consequences on human dignity and human rights.”Footnote 113 The UN special rapporteur on cultural rights has defined a human rights-based approach as requiring actors to “take into account the rights of individuals and communities in relation to such object or manifestation and, in particular, to connect cultural heritage with its source of production.”Footnote 114 This approach also informs reparations flowing from these violations of human rights and international humanitarian law obligations, with UN human rights bodies and the International Criminal Court stressing that cultural heritage and local communities must drive post-conflict reconstruction processes.Footnote 115

Eviction and forced displacement

The eviction and forced displacement of Indigenous peoples and other local populations is an ongoing characteristic of several World Heritage properties and is often fueled or exacerbated by armed conflict, development, tourism, and conservation. Related to these acts are increasing numbers of forced disappearances and extrajudicial killing including persons seeking accountability and reparations.Footnote 116 International tribunals, regional human rights courts, and UN human rights bodies have found that Indigenous peoples and local inhabitants have been forcibly removed from nature reserves and heritage sites including World Heritage properties in ongoing violation of international human rights norms (for example, in Serengeti National Park,Footnote 117 Central Suriname Nature Reserve,Footnote 118 Chitwan National Park,Footnote 119 and Kaeng Krachen National Park).Footnote 120 State of conservation reporting has been implicated in promoting national initiatives that have involved the eviction of Indigenous peoples from their land (for example, in Salonga National ParkFootnote 121 and Ngorongoro Conservation Area).Footnote 122

The UNDRIP specifically affirms that Indigenous peoples and individuals have a right not to be subject to forced assimilation or destruction of their culture, and, to this end, states must provide an effective mechanism for prevention and redress of “any action which has the aim or effect of dispossessing them of their lands, territories, or resources” and “any form of forced population transfer which has the aim or effect of violating or undermining any of their rights.”Footnote 123 The special rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples has noted that, “for over a century, conservation was carried out with the aim of vacating protected areas of all human presence, leading to cultural destruction and large-scale displacement of indigenous peoples from their ancestral lands in the name of conservation.”Footnote 124 She further has observed that when placed under control of governmental authorities these territories are exposed to “destructive settlement, extractive industries, illegal logging, agribusiness expansion, and large-scale infrastructure development.”Footnote 125 In 2022, in response to his participation in meetings of the World Heritage Committee and the IUCN’s World Conservation Congress, the special rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples focused his annual thematic study on the obligations of states and international organizations in respect of Indigenous peoples rights and protected areas.Footnote 126

Building on existing human rights and international humanitarian law instruments, UN human rights bodies prepared the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’s 1997 General Comment no. 7 on Forced Eviction,Footnote 127 the 1998 Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement,Footnote 128 and the 2007 Basic Principles and Guidelines on Development-Based Evictions and Displacement,Footnote 129 in addition to regional initiatives like the African Union’s 2009 Convention on the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons,Footnote 130 which detail the obligations of international organizations, states, and non-state actors.

Development, extractive industries, and tourism

The adverse impact of development – in particular, in extractive industries,Footnote 131 logging,Footnote 132 damming,Footnote 133 and tourismFootnote 134 – on the conservation of World Heritage properties has been examined by the World Heritage Committee and the advisory bodies. However, these assessments and responses do not address human rights violations arising from these activities. International courts, regional human rights courts, and international human rights bodies have found serious human rights violations on World Heritage sites relating to extractive industries (for example, in Kakadu,Footnote 135 the Great Barrier Reef,Footnote 136 Laponia,Footnote 137 and the Okavango Delta);Footnote 138 logging (for example, in Białowieża ForestFootnote 139 and Gunung Mulu National Park),Footnote 140 damming (for example, in Selous Game Reserve,Footnote 141 and Rio Plátano Biosphere Reserve),Footnote 142 and tourism (for example, in Kahuzi-Biega National Park,Footnote 143 the lake system in the Great Rift Valley,Footnote 144 and the volcanoes of Kamchatka).Footnote 145 These activities are a reminder that human rights violations encompass non-state actors, like transnational corporations, which are often the perpetrators of such violations. The UN Guiding Principles on Businesses and Human Rights reaffirm that states must ensure that entities operating or registered on their territory comply with human rights law, while corporations must respect applicable domestic laws including human rights law.Footnote 146 Peak bodies in the miningFootnote 147 and tourism sectorsFootnote 148 have issued guidelines on human rights and culture. The World Bank’s revised Environmental and Social Framework, with guidelines for development projects, references international human rights standards.Footnote 149 These initiatives, together with the SDGs <no.> have precipitated and informed the design and application of human rights and cultural impact assessments in applications and the management of projects and sites.Footnote 150 The IUCN has adopted an environmental and social framework with risk assessment addressing human rights and the cultural impact of its work generally.Footnote 151 By contrast, the decisions of the World Heritage Committee referencing the impact assessments of proposed developments on World Heritage properties focus on their effect on outstanding universal value.

Environmental degradation and climate change

The importance of international cooperation in addressing global issues concerning the environment have been defined in the Stockholm Declaration and the World Heritage Convention.Footnote 152 The Stockholm Declaration emphasizes the centrality of the environment to human rights and equality.Footnote 153 The principles contained in this Declaration were reaffirmed and expanded upon with the Rio Declaration on the Environment and Development and the SDGs.Footnote 154 It is recognized that the global nature of climate change can only be addressed through effective international cooperation and action at the international, national, and local levels. Climate change is having a negative effect on a significant proportion of World Heritage properties, including the Great Barrier Reef,Footnote 155 Lake Turkana National Parks,Footnote 156 and the Central Amazon Conservation Complex.Footnote 157 The adverse impact of climate change on World Heritage sites is addressed by the Policy Document on the Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties, which was adopted by the General Assembly of States Parties in 2007 and which makes no reference to human rights.Footnote 158 The updated Policy Document for Climate Action for World Heritage, adopted in 2021, likewise does not reference human rights.Footnote 159

UN human rights bodies and regional human rights courts have recognized that climate change is adversely impacting human rights including on protected areas.Footnote 160 The deliberate targeting of environmental human rights defenders, including those campaigning in respect of World Heritage sites, has been condemned by the Human Rights Council. The Human Rights Council has underscored the significance of good practice policies at the international and regional levels.Footnote 161 This latter issue must be placed within the broader concerns flagged by the Stockholm Declaration, which have been repeatedly reaffirmed and elaborated in the intervening years – that is, access to information, public participation, and access to justice in respect of environmental matters.Footnote 162 It is a requirement extrapolated in respect of women and girls by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against WomenFootnote 163 and of Indigenous peoples by the UN special rapporteur.Footnote 164

International responsibility for serious human rights violations

With the articulation of international human rights enjoyed by persons and groups on or near World Heritage properties becoming more detailed and pronounced in recent years, the enforcement of these norms by international, regional, and national courts and tribunals has led to a corresponding emphasis on enforcing international responsibility for their violation. Serious violations of international human rights and international humanitarian law arising from or related to the operation of the World Heritage Convention can potentially engage the international responsibility of international organizations like UNESCO, states, and non-state actors like corporations, non-governmental organizations, and individuals.

UNESCO, as an international organization, has a legal personality defined by its constitutive instrument, which is distinct from its member states.Footnote 165 The promotion of human rights and fundamental freedoms is the purpose of the organization and its parent body, the UN.Footnote 166 In addition, normative international instruments adopted since the UDHR have defined and elaborated upon international human rights law and the actions to be taken by the UN and its specialized agencies (including UNESCO). As explained above, UNESCO has transposed these actions into its own instruments and policies. The International Law Commission’s Articles on Responsibility of International Organizations stipulated that when an international organization commits a wrongful act, its responsibility is entailed.Footnote 167 The International Court of Justice has stated that the question of immunity from legal proceedings that an international organization may enjoy is distinct from the issue of compensation for damages incurred as a result of acts by an international organization or its agents acting in their official capacity and that the organization may be required to bear responsibility for such damage.Footnote 168 UNESCO provides support through the World Heritage Centre as the Secretariat and offers financial support through its regular budget, which is approved by the General Conference. If the conduct aids or assists violations of human rights and international humanitarian law, it can engage its international responsibility.Footnote 169 Other international organizations like the ICCROM, the World Bank, and regional development banks, which similarly provide logistical and financial support for development projects on World Heritage properties that trigger or exacerbate human rights violations, may similarly share international responsibility.

National, regional, and international courts have held states responsible for violations of human rights and international humanitarian law obligations related to World Heritage properties (whether under treaty or customary international law) and where the breach of the obligation is attributable to that state.Footnote 170 As noted above, the WH-SDP adopted by the General Assembly of States Parties and the Operational Guidelines approved by the World Heritage Committee confirm the commitment to “uphold, respect and contribute to the full range of international human rights standards.”Footnote 171 The Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage also proscribes obligations of states in respect of state responsibility, individual criminal responsibility, and cooperation for the protection of cultural heritage including World Heritage sites in respect of intentional destruction.Footnote 172 The responsibility of states parties to the World Heritage Convention may be engaged where decisions by the Convention’s organs aid or assist serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law obligations on or related to World Heritage properties.Footnote 173

States have a duty to ensure that business enterprises on their territory, including World Heritage properties, do not engage in conduct that is in violation of their human rights and international humanitarian law obligations under treaty and customary international law.Footnote 174 Corporations have limited legal personality in international lawFootnote 175 and must respect applicable human rights norms in their operations.Footnote 176 Corporations have been held responsible for human rights violations including on World Heritage properties before arbitral tribunals established under international investment agreements.Footnote 177 The IUCN and ICOMOS, as non-governmental organizations, however, also have an obligation to adhere to international human rights standards.Footnote 178

Individuals can be held individually criminally responsible in respect of serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law related to World Heritage properties before national courts and international criminal courts.Footnote 179 The International Criminal Court has found an individual criminally responsible for war crimes in respect of destruction and damage perpetrated on a World Heritage inscribed property, and, at the time of writing, another person is being prosecuted for crimes against humanity in respect of such acts.Footnote 180 The Office of the Prosecutor for the International Criminal Court in its current policy on cultural heritage elaborates on how acts against World Heritage properties are relevant in the prosecution of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide under the Rome Statute.Footnote 181

International responsibility of an international organization or State for serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law entails an obligation to revert to compliance with these obligations,Footnote 182 (including cessation of the internationally wrongful conduct,Footnote 183 and commitment to non-repetition),Footnote 184 and make reparations (restitution,Footnote 185 compensation,Footnote 186 satisfaction,Footnote 187 and interest) to victims of the wrongful conduct.Footnote 188 These obligations have been elaborated and applied in respect of serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law included those related to World Heritage properties by regional human rights courts and international criminal tribunals.Footnote 189 Similar obligations to cease the wrongful conduct and make reparations for the harm caused apply to non-state actors, including individuals. In formulating a reparations order against persons found individually criminal responsible, the International Criminal Court draws on the jurisprudence and principles and guidelines developed in international human rights law.Footnote 190 The court in the first war crimes trial concerning damage to a World Heritage property made clear that, while the site was of universal importance to humanity, “addressing the harm suffered by the community of Timbuktu will also effectively address the broader harm suffered by Malians and the international community as a whole.”Footnote 191

Conclusion

In the early years of its operation, UNESCO was at the forefront of human rights (particularly, with respect to cultural rights) law formulation and implementation. It championed the inclusion of a detailed formulation of the right to participate in cultural life, which made explicit reference to access to cultural heritage, during the drafting of the ICESCR. Its early initiative to formulate a procedure for the investigation of large-scale human rights violations and individual communications was one of the first, if not the first, in the UN system. The World Heritage Convention was similarly groundbreaking when adopted in 1972 and was inspired and informed by the Stockholm Declaration adopted in the same year. The Stockholm Declaration promoted the centrality of the environment for the effective enjoyment of human rights. Yet, over the intervening 50 years, serious human rights violations related to World Heritage properties reveal the shortcomings of UNESCO and the operation of the World Heritage Convention in fulfilling the organization’s purpose for which it was established as well as the oft-repeated commitment of states to a human rights-based approach to world heritage.

For UNESCO, the World Heritage Convention must be a multilateral instrument for the organization to fulfill its mandate “to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms.” For states parties to the Convention, World Heritage properties are not tableau rasa, devoid of human rights obligations. The human rights and international humanitarian law obligations binding those states (whether under treaty or customary international law) apply to violations on their territory including World Heritage sites. The limitations of UNESCO’s and the World Heritage system’s reporting and human rights communication procedures have inhibited efforts to properly realize a human rights-based approach in implementing the Convention. For victims of human rights violations on or related to World Heritage properties, this has meant that victims of these violations must seek justice and relief before national and regional courts and international human rights bodies.

In the fiftieth year since the adoption of the World Heritage Convention and more than 75 years since the adoption of the UDHR, it is imperative to recall that these two treaties are not self-contained regimes but, rather, mutually reinforcing entities. To ensure the credibility of UNESCO and the World Heritage Convention, repeated affirmation of the commitment to human rights by the organization and states must be backed up by effective implementation of human rights obligations. The following measures must be included as a minimum. First, there must be a human rights impact assessment audit of all properties inscribed on the World Heritage List by nominated independent human rights experts (for example, the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights or regional human rights bodies), sanctioned by the General Assembly of States Parties to the World Heritage Convention. The process of an impact assessment and audit of the existing properties is not foreign to the World Heritage framework. Impact assessment in respect of outstanding universal value and auditing of existing World Heritage properties is already in place in relation to a review of the inscription criteria. A human rights impact assessment is not foreign to the conservation of world heritage sites; the WHC-SDP flags them, and advisory bodies implement economic and social impact assessments including human rights in respect of World Heritage. States are familiar with economic and social impact assessments in respect of development funding by the World Bank and other regional development banks. The proposed audit would require states parties to provide the human rights impact assessment for assessment by the nominated human rights body. The World Heritage Convention’s Operational Guidelines should be amended to install the nominated human rights body as a standing advisory body for human rights compliance. The Operational Guidelines should be amended to require nomination for inscription on the World Heritage List to be accompanied by a satisfactory human rights impact assessment conducted by the nominated human rights body.Footnote 192 The General Assembly of States Parties and UNESCO’s General Conference should be provided with the results of the audit and assessments, with this information being made publicly accessible on the Internet.

Second, the Operational Guidelines should be amended to ensure that periodic reporting requirements by states parties under to the World Heritage Convention to the General Assembly and the UNESCO General Conference cover international human rights and international humanitarian violations on properties on the World Heritage List, the World Heritage in Danger List, and tentative lists in their jurisdiction. The WHC-SDP calls for “reporting processes compatible with an effective rights-based approach for both existing and potential new properties.”Footnote 193 Yet the existing reporting regime and its oversight remains weak despite the text of the Convention and its current policy. Given the near universal uptake of the World Heritage Convention, the states parties to the Convention are familiar with the Universal Periodic Review (UPR), which is a periodic review of the human rights record of all UN member states by the Human Rights Council.

A similar reporting regime should be instituted within UNESCO through the existing review of the Convention’s reporting regime by a strengthened and more transparent CR Committee of the Executive Board. States’ reports covering the same human rights obligations as the UPR should be submitted and reviewed at regular intervals and be made publicly available on the Internet. The CR Committee through the Secretariat must also enable receipt and public circulation of reports by non-state actors like UN human rights bodies, non-governmental organizations, and representative organizations. The CR Committee should be empowered to issue reports with recommendations and decide on measures to be taken where there is a persistent lack of cooperation by a state party. Until these or similar changes are implemented by UNESCO, the Human Rights Council, and non-governmental organizations participating in the UPR, should ensure that human rights issues related World Heritage properties are addressed by this process.Footnote 194

Third, UNESCO, the organs of the World Heritage Convention, and states must adhere to UN-mandated standards in respect of access to justice.Footnote 195 The CR Committee should be reformed to bring its mode of operation in line with UN human rights bodies and regional human rights courts and the Paris Principles. UNESCO’s General Conference and Executive Board and the General Assembly of States Parties to the World Heritage Convention must ensure that states parties are in compliance with judgments and orders of international, regional, and national courts in respect of human rights violations and with recommendations of UN and regional human rights bodies. The inscription of a property on the World Heritage List should be deferred until the state party is compliant.Footnote 196 UNESCO and its member states, and World Heritage bodies and states parties, must work proactively and constructively with UN, regional, and national human rights bodies and international and regional courts to ensure compliance with international human rights and international humanitarian law obligations on or related to World Heritage properties. States parties must enable country visits by UN and regional special rapporteurs and working groups investigating possible human rights violations related to World Heritage properties. The World Heritage Committee and the General Assembly must enable written and oral communications by UN and regional special rapporteurs and working groups before adopting decisions.Footnote 197 The Operational Guidelines and the Declaration of Principles to Promote International Solidarity and Cooperation to Preserve World Heritage should be amended accordingly.Footnote 198

On the seventy-fifth anniversary of the adoption of the UN Charter and the establishment of the UN, the secretary-general has entitled his call to action for human rights as its “highest aspiration” at a time when “disregard for human rights is widespread [and] we see egregious and systematic human rights violations” and “rampant impunity.”Footnote 199 The actions to address this challenge include “making a concerted effort” to “ensure predictable and consistent UN responses thereto, including accountability mechanisms.”Footnote 200 UNESCO, as the UN’s specialist culture agency, and its flagship convention on culture, the World Heritage Convention, must ensure that they too fulfill this responsibility.

Acknowledgments

The author thanks Lynn Meskell and Claudia Liuzza; her collaborators on the human rights theme for the Our World Heritage initiative; and Isabella Marriott and Josephine Lee, for their research assistance. This article is an expanded version of a white paper prepared with Meskell and Liuzza and published as Duke Global Working Paper Series no. 44, 22 December 2021. We are grateful to Hilary Charlesworth, Stefan Disko, Dalee Sambo Dorough, Kate Finn, Francesco Francioni, Agnes Kabajuni, John Knox, and Farida Shaheed for their generous feedback on early drafts of the white paper.

Footnotes

2 See UN Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights, The Right to Access to and Enjoyment of Cultural Heritage, Doc. A/HRC/17/38, 2011.

3 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Heritage and Natural Heritage, 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 (World Heritage Convention).

4 Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945, 1 UNTS 16 (UN Charter).

5 UN Charter, Art. 1. This purpose of the United Nations (UN) was reaffirmed by the secretary-general on the occasion of its seventy-fifth anniversary. See UN Secretary-General, The Highest Aspiration: A Call to Action for Human Rights, 2020, https://www.un.org/en/content/action-for-human-rights/index.shtml (accessed 25 March 2021).

6 Constitution of the UN Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 16 November 1945, 4 UNTS 275 (as amended) (UNESCO Constitution), reprinted in UNESCO 2020, 5.

7 UNESCO Constitution, Art. 1, para. 2(c).

8 See, e.g., Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, 17 October 2003, 2368 UNTS 1 (CSICH).

9 Including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, 3 January 1976, 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR); International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination of Racial Discrimination, 7 March 1966, 660 UNTS 195 (CERD); Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 18 December 1979, 1249 UNTS 13.

10 Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, 16 June 1972, 11 ILM 1416 (1972); United Nations, Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Declaration), Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1, 1972, 3, para. 1; 4, Principle 1.

11 World Heritage Committee, Decision 43 COM 11A, 2019; World Heritage Committee, Decision 44 COM 12, 2021; World Heritage Committee, Policy Document for the Integration of a Sustainable Development Perspective into the Processes of the World Heritage Convention, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13, 2015, 7, para 20, adopted by Resolution 20GA 13, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/15, 7. The advisory bodies have likewise affirmed their commitment to international human rights norms. See Springer Reference Springer2016; International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Policy on Conservation and Human Rights for Sustainable Development, Doc. WCC-2012-Res-099-EN, 2012; International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), Resolution 20GA/19 on People-Centred Approach to Cultural Heritage, 15 December 2017; ICOMOS, Buenos Aires Declaration Marking the 70th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 5 December 2018; ICOMOS, Resolution 19GA 2017/23 on Our Common Dignity: New Steps to Rights-based Approaches in World Heritage, 15 December 2017; International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), “Overview: Reproduces Art 27 UDHR,” https://www.iccrom.org/overview (accessed 25 March 2021).

12 World Heritage Committee, Policy Document, 7, para. 20 (emphasis added).

13 Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention (31 July 2021) WHC.21/01, paras 12 and 111 (Operational Guidelines) (emphasis added).

14 World Heritage Committee, Report on Progress made in Implementing the World Heritage Sustainable Development Policy (WH-SDP) since 2019, Doc. WHC/21/44.COM/5D, 4 June 2021; Decision 44 COM 5D, 2021; UNESCO, “Thematic Indicators for Culture in the 2030 Agenda,” 2019, 30, http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/publication_culture_2020_indicators_en.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021).

15 UNSC Resolution 2347, Doc. S/RES/2347(2017), 24 March 2017; HRC Resolution 33/20, 30 September 2016, HRC Resolution 37/17, 22 March 2018; HRC Resolution 43/29, 22 June 2020 (on prevention of genocide); Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “Inter-sessional Seminar on Cultural Rights and the Protection of Cultural Heritage List of Background Documents,” 6 July 2017, https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/escr/pages/culturalrightsprotectionculturalheritage.aspx (accessed 25 March 2021).

16 Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, adopted by the 32nd session of the UNESCO General Conference, Doc. 32C/Resolution 33, 17 October 2003.

17 World Heritage Committee, Summary Record, Doc. WHC-02/CONF.202/INF.15, 11 March 2003, para. 14 (Chilean delegate).

18 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331, Arts. 11, 38.

19 World Heritage Committee, Report of the World Heritage Committee, Doc. WHC-97/CONF.208/17, 1997, 59, para. XII.11.

20 UNESCO, 2022–2025 Approved Programme and Budget. First biennium 2022–2023, Doc. 41 C/5, 2022, 179.

21 Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties Arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law. Report of the Study Group of the International Law Commission, Doc. A/CN.4/L.682, 13 April 2006. Addendum 1 concluded that where there is “conflicting or overlapping” treaties within different regimes then both treaties should be implemented “as far as possible with a view to mutual accommodation and in accordance with the principle of accommodation.”

22 Including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN Doc. A/810, 10 December 1948 (UDHR); the adoption of the CERD in 1965; and the ICESCR in 1966. See Johnson and Symonides Reference Glen Johnson and Symonides1998.

23 Draft Articles on Educational and Cultural Rights Subjected by UNESCO Director-General, Doc. E/CN.4/541, 18 April 1951; Study of the “Right to Participate in Cultural Life”: Basic Document, Doc. UNESCO/CUA/42, 2 May 1952; Annotations on the Text of the Draft International Covenant on Human Rights (Prepared by the Secretary-General), Doc. A/2929, 1 July 1955, 115–16 (draft Article 16 Rights relating to culture and science).

25 Decision 104 EX/3.3, 1978; Committee on Conventions and Recommendations (CR Committee), Information Document, Doc. 209 EX/CR/2, 14 February 2020, 11; Symonides Reference Symonides, Glen Johnson and Symonides1998, 96.

26 Decision 104 EX/3.3. From 1978 to October 2019, the CR Committee received 609 communications of which 202 were founded to be inadmissible or where examination was either suspended or proceeding. CR Committee), Information Document, 15. The decision also recognizes the role of the director-general in “settlement of cases and the elimination of massive, systematic or flagrant violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms’ and “initiating consultations, in conditions of mutual respect, confidence and confidentiality, to help reach solutions to particular problems concerns human rights” (para. 8).

27 Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparations for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, adopted by GA Resolution 60/147, 16 December 2005 (Van Boven/Bassiouni Principles); Principles Relating to the Status of National Institutions, adopted by GA Resolution 48/134, 20 December 1993.

28 Holmström, in Johnson and Symonides Reference Symonides, Glen Johnson and Symonides1998.

29 UDHR; Letter from Director Legal Office to National Commissions for UNESCO 7 February 2020 with Explanatory Note, Doc. LA/CR/2020/25, 2020.

30 ICCPR; ICESCR.

31 World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 25 June 1993, Preamble and Part I, para. 4, https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/vienna.aspx (accessed 25 March 2021) (Vienna Declaration).

32 Vienna Declaration, Part II A, para. 2. UNESCO’s General Conference subsequently adopted the Declaration on Principles of Tolerance, Doc. SHS.96/WS/5, 16 November 1995; Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generations towards Future Generations, 12 November 1997, https://en.unesco.org/about-us/legal-affairs/declaration-responsibilities-present-generations-towards-future-generations; and the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, Doc. CLT/2002/WS/11, 2 November 2001, in response.

33 UNGA Resolution 55/2, 18 September 2000; Roadmap towards the Implementation of the Millennium Declaration; Report of the Secretary-General, Doc. A/56/326, 6 September 2001.

34 UN Secretary-General, Highest Aspiration.

35 UNESCO, Strategy of Human Rights, Doc. SHS-2007/WS/15, 2003, https://www.unesco.pl/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/UNESCO_HR_Strategia.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021).

36 UNESCO, Strategy of Human Rights, 12.

37 UNESCO, Medium-Term Strategy for 2022–2029, Doc. 41 C/4, 10 March 2021, para. 18.

38 World Heritage Committee, Policy Document, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13, 6 November 2015.

39 Operational Guidelines, para. 12; Decision 43 COM 11A.

40 IUCN, Rights-based Approaches to Conservation, Resolution 4.056, 2008; IUCN, Policy on Conservation and Human Rights for Sustainable Development, Doc. WCC-2012-Res-099-EN, 2012; ICOMOS, People-Centred Approach to Cultural Heritage, Resolution 20GA/19, 2020; ICOMOS, Buenos Aires Declaration; ICOMOS, Our Common Dignity: New Steps to Rights-based Approaches in World Heritage, Resolution 19GA 2017/23, 2017; ICCROM, “Overview”; Springer, Campese, and Painter Reference Springer, Campese and Painter2011.

41 CSICH, Art. 2, para. 1. The fund established under the CSICH is prevented from accepting contributions from entities whose activities are incompatible with “existing human rights instruments, with the requirements of sustainable development or with the requirement of mutual respect among communities, groups and individuals.” Operational Directives for the Implementation of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Heritage, Doc. 8.GA, 2020, para. 73 (Operational Directives).

42 CERD.

43 Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, [2004] ICJ Reports 136, paras. 88, 149, 155; Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company Limited, Judgment, 5 February 1970, ICJ Reports 3, paras. 33–34. See also UN, Report of the International Law Commission, Doc. A/74/10, 2019, Chapter V Peremptory Norms of General International Law (Jus Cogens), draft Conclusion 23, Annex (e) and commentary, 206, para. 9.

44 Declaration on Racial and Racial Prejudice, adopted and proclaimed by the UNESCO General Conference on 27 November 1978. See also UNESCO, Statement on Race, 1950; UNESCO, Statement on the Nature of Race and Race Differences, 1951; UNESCO, Statement on the Biological Aspects of Race (1964), Statement on Race and Racial Prejudice, 1967; UNESCO, General Conference adopted the Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice, 1978. See Selcer Reference Selcer2012.

45 Stockholm Declaration, Principle 1, 4; Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, paras. 15, 16; Durban Declaration and Programme of Action again Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, and Related Intolerance, 2002, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/Durban_text_en.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021).

46 Development of an Integrated Strategy to Combat Racism, Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Doc. 32C/13, 1 October 2003; Decision Adopted by the Executive Board at Its 164th Session, Doc. 164 EX/Decision 3.4.2, 1 September 2003.

47 Development of an Integrated Strategy, 4.

48 Priority Africa at UNESCO. Operational Strategy for its Implementation (2014–2021), Doc. AFR.2013/WS/1, 2013; UNESCO, Medium-Term Strategy, para. 19, Strategic Objective 3.

49 Operational Guidelines, para. 61 (c)(ix).

50 World Heritage Committee, Progress Report on Priority Africa, Sustainable Development and World Heritage, Doc. WHC/21/44.COM/5C, 30 June 2021, para. 4.

51 World Heritage Committee, Policy Document, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13, 6, para 18.

52 Operational Guidelines, para. 111(b). Cf. Operational Directives, para 174, which includes Indigenous peoples, migrants, immigrants and refugees, people of different ages and genders, persons with disabilities, and members of vulnerable groups.”

53 Greiber et al. Reference Greiber, Janki, Orellana, Savaresi and Shelton2009; Springer Reference Springer2016, 17; ICOMOS Resolution 20GA/19.

54 UNESCO, Indigenous Peoples and UNESCO 2021: Outcomes of the Questionnaire for 22nd Session of UNPFII, 31 December 2021, https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2022/03/UNESCO-Consolidated-Report-UNPFII-22_final.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021).

55 Draft Decisions Recommeneded by the Programme and External Relations Commission, Doc. 202 EX/50, 17 October 2017, para. 19; Decisions Adopted by the Executive Board at Its 201st Session, Doc. 201 EX/6, 5 June 2017; UNESCO, Policy on Engaging with Indigenous Peoples, Doc. 202 EX/9, https://en.unesco.org/indigenous-peoples/policy (accessed 25 March 2021).

56 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, GA Resolution 61/295, UN Doc. A/61/49, 13 September 2007 (UNDRIP); see also UN Secretary-General, Highest Aspiration, Guiding Principles, 3.

57 UNDRIP, Arts. 41, 42. This obligation was elaborated by the General Assembly in UNGA Resolution 71.321, 21 September 2017.

58 UNESCO, Policy on Engaging with Indigenous Peoples, 9.

59 UNESCO, Policy on Engaging with Indigenous Peoples.

60 UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Report on the Tenth Session, Doc. E/2011/43-E/C.19/2011/14, May 2011; Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples with Respect to Their Cultural Heritage, Advice no. 8, 2015, Doc. A/HRC/30/53 Annex, 19 August 2015; UN Secretary-General, Ways and Means of Promoting Participation at the United Nations of Indigenous Peoples Representatives on Issues Affecting Them, Doc. A/HRC/21/24, 2 July 2012, 9–11; Special Rapporteur on Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Conservation Measures and Their Impact on Indigenous Peoples’ Rights, Doc. A/71/229, 29 July 2016.

61 Operational Guidelines, paras. 12, 40, 117, 119, 123; Decision 43 COM 11A; Decision 39 COM 11.

62 Operational Guidelines, paras. 64, 123, 211(d).

63 World Heritage Committee, Policy Document, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13, 6–7, paras. 17, 21; World Heritage Committee, Decision 31 COM 13B, 2007; World Heritage Committee, Decision 35 COM 12E, 2011.

64 World Heritage Committee, Policy Document, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13, 7–8, para. 22.

65 Operational Guidelines, para. 123.

66 World Heritage Committee, Declaration of Principles to Promote International Solidarity and Cooperation to Preserve World Heritage, Doc. WHC/21/23.GA/INF.10, 9 November 2021, 5, para. 9.

67 Ethical Principles for Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage, Decision 10.COM 15.a, 2015.

68 IUCN, Implementation of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in the Context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, World Conservation Congress Resolution, Doc. WCC-2012-Res-047, 2012; IUCN, Environmental and Social Management System (ESMS) Standard on Indigenous Peoples, Doc. 2e, 2019, which follows the definition of Indigenous peoples from the International Labour Organization’s Convention no. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (1989) rather than the UNDRIP’s emphasis on self-identification. IUCN, Environmental and Social Management System (ESMS) Manual, version 2.0, 2016, 14–15 (definition of free, prior, and informed consent [FPIC]); the Indigenous Heritage and Working Group on Indigenous Heritage under ICOMOS Resolution 19GA 2017/27 is considering the place of Indigenous heritage within the World Heritage Convention framework. See a more limited approach in Operational Guidelines, Annex 6, Procedures of the Advisory Bodies for Preliminary Assessments and Evaluation of Nominations.

69 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Press Release: Thailand. UN Experts Warn against Heritage Status for Kaeng Krachan National Park, 23 July 2021, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=27333&LangID=E (accessed 25 March 2021); Letter to the World Heritage Committee, Doc. AL OTH 209/2021, 30 June 2021, https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26517 (accessed 25 March 2021).

70 Protected areas and Indigenous Peoples’ Rights: The Obligations of States and International Organizations. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Doc. A/77/238, 19 July 2022; Regional Consultation of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Asia. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Doc. A/HRC/45/ 34/Add.3, 4 September 2020, paras. 77–78; S. Disko, “UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention,” The Indigenous World 2022, https://www.iwgia.org/en/resources/indigenous-world.html (accessed 25 March 2021).

71 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 18 December 1979, 1249 UNTS 13 (CEDAW).

72 HRC Resolution 37/17, 22 March 2018, para. 9; HRC Resolution 33/20, 30 September 2016, para. 9.

73 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women, Doc. A/CONF.177/20, 15 September 1995; United Nations, System-Wide Policy on Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women: Focusing on Results and Impact, Doc. CEB/2006/2, 15 December 2006.

74 United Nations, System-Wide Policy.

75 Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development, UNGA Resolution 70/1, Doc. A/RES/70/1, 25 September 2015, 18, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5.5 (to ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic, and public life).

76 UN Secretary-General, Highest Aspiration, Guiding Principles, 3, 7–8.

77 UNESCO, Medium-Term Strategy, 16, para 22; General Conference Resolution 37C/60 for Coordination and Monitoring of Action to Implement Gender Equality; UNESCO, Priority Gender Equality Action Plan (2014-2021), Doc. 37C/4-C/5-Compl, 2014 (GEAP II).

78 GEAP II, 38 (“encourage equal access to capacity-building and specialized training in the fields of culture, and supporting other measures that promote the greater involvement of women in decision-making mechanisms”). See UNESCO, Gender Equality, Heritage and Creativity, 2014; UNESCO, UNESCO in Action for Gender Equality, 2022.

79 See Office of the Prosecutor for the International Criminal Court (ICC-OTP), Policy on Cultural Heritage, para. 29, June 2021, https://www.icc-cpi.int/itemsDocuments/20210614-otp-policy-cultural-heritage-eng.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021); ICC, Prosecutor v. Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, ICC-01/12-01/18; CEDAW General Recommendation no. 37 (2018) on the Gender-related Dimensions of Disaster Risk Reduction in the Context of Climate Change, Doc. CEDAW/C/GC/37, 13 March 2018; Castañeda Carney et al., The UN Special Rapporteur Has Noted That Significant Impact on Indigenous Women and Girls Including in Respect of Sexual Violence, Doc. A/77/238, Reference Carney, Sabater, Owren, Boyer and Wen2021, para. 18.

80 World Heritage Committee, Policy Document, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13, 8, para. 23; see also UNESCO, Thematic Indicators for Culture in the 2030 Agenda, 2019, 30, http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/publication_culture_2020_indicators_en.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021).

81 World Heritage Committee, Policy Document, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13, para. (d).

82 Operational Guidelines, paras. 12, 15(o), 64, 111(b); Decision 43 COM 11A.

83 Operational Guidelines, paras. 155.

84 IUCN, Gender Policy Statement, 1998; IUCN, ESMS Manual, 11–12, 15; IUCN, Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment Policy: Mainstreaming Gender-responsiveness within the IUCN’s Programme of Work, Doc. C/95/8 Annex, October 2018; Labadi et al. Reference Labadi, Giliberto, Rosetti, Shebati and Yildrim2021.

85 Operational Directives, Part IV.1.4 on Gender Equality, para. 181.

86 Operational Directives, paras. 157, 162.

87 GA Resolution 70/1, 25 September 2015.

88 HRC Resolution 48/13, 8 October 2021, preamble.

89 Transforming Our World, 25, SDGs 16.3, 16.7.

90 UN Secretary-General, Highest Aspiration, 8, 9.

91 Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, Doc. 31C/Res 25, adopted at 31st General Conference of UNESCO, 2001. See UN Secretary-General, Culture and Sustainable Development. Note by Secretary-General, Doc. A/74/286, 5 August 2019.

92 Operational Guidelines, Annex 4; World Heritage Committee, World Heritage Committee 18th Session, Phuket Thailand, Doc. WHC-94/CONF.003/16, 31 January 1995.

93 World Heritage Committee, Policy Document, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13, 9, para. 24.

94 Policy Document, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13, 7, para. 20.

95 Policy Document, Doc. WHC-15/20.GA/INF.13.

96 Operational Guidelines, paras. 14bis, 16(o).

97 Convention on Biological Diversity, 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79, Art. 27.

98 IUCN, Environmental and Social Management (ESMS) Grievance Mechanism – Guidance Note, version 2.1, October 2020.

99 Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, UN Doc. A/RES/63/117, 10 December 2008.

100 See Greiber et al. Reference Greiber, Janki, Orellana, Savaresi and Shelton2009; Springer, Campese, and Painter Reference Springer, Campese and Painter2011, 8–20; Springer Reference Springer2016 (enumerating relevant substantive and procedural rights).

101 Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962, Judgment, [2013] ICJ Reports 281, 294, 317–18. See Separate Opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade “calling for the protection, by the measures indicated or ordered by the ICJ, of the rights to life and personal integrity of the local population, as well as the cultural and spiritual heritage of human kind” (333).

102 Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, [2004] ICJ Reports 136; Beit Sourik Village Council v. The Government of Israel and Commander of the IDF Forces in the West Bank, HCJ 2056/04, 2 May 2004.

103 ICC, Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, Reparations Order, ICC-01/12-01/15, Trial Chamber VII ICC, 17 August 2017, n. Footnote 80 (replicating the joint statement of two UN special rapporteurs) (“the destruction of tombs of ancient Muslim saints in Timbuktu, a common heritage of humanity, is a loss for us all, but for the local population it also means the denial of their identity, their beliefs, their history and their dignity”); ICC, First Expert Report Brief by UN Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights, ICC-01/12-01/15-214-AnxI-Red-3, 27 April 2017; Prosecutor v. Al Hassan; ICC-OTP, Policy Paper on Case Selection and Prioritization, 15 September 2016, 15, para. 46, https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/182205/pdf (accessed 25 March 2021); ICC-OTP, Policy on Cultural Heritage, June 2021, in particular, para. 47, https://www.icc-cpi.int/itemsDocuments/20210614-otp-policy-cultural-heritage-eng.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021).

104 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Miodrag Jokic, Trial Judgment, IT-01-42/1-S, Trial Chamber I, 18 March 2004, noting that Arts 27 and 56 of the Regulation Annexed to the Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, and Annex, 18 October 1907, in force 26 January 1910, (1907) 208 CTS 77, (1908) 2(supp) AJIL 90 (Hague IV), reflect customary international law.

105 OHCHR, Report on the Human Rights Situation in South-East Turkey, February 2017, paras. 2, 3, 14, 19, 29, 32–40; Venice Commission, Turkey: Opinion on the Legal Framework Governing Curfews, June 2016, para. 37: “[B]etween September 2015 and May 2016, the Government took measures not to damage the city walls while systematically demolishing entire neighbourhoods within the areas surrounded by the walls”; Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, Memorandum on the Human Rights Implications of Anti-Terrorism Operations in South-Eastern Turkey, December 2016, paras. 23, 41, 43.

106 HRC Resolution 37/17, 22 March 2018, 2–3, preamble, para. 10; Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Special Rapporteur on Internally Displaced Peoples, Philippines Warned over “Massive” Impact of Military Operations on Mindanao Indigenous Peoples, 27 December 2017, https://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22567&LangID=E (accessed 25 March 2021); Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Study on Attacks Against and the Criminalization of Indigenous Human Rights Defenders, Doc. A/HRC/39/17, 10 August 2018, para. 57, noting how Indigenous Lumad peoples in Mindanao have been targeted for extrajudicial executions, arbitrary arrests and force displacements following escalating militarization and Special Rapporteur being targeted for raising concerns.

107 Decision 44 COM.7A.46, 2021, para. 4.

108 Joint Statement by Special Rapporteur on Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Working Group on the Use of Mercenaries, and Special Rapporteur on Torture, 2 April 2014, https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=22743 (accessed 25 March 2021); Submission of Maasai Indigenous Residents of Ngorongoro Conservation Area to UN Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 25 March 2022, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/indigenouspeoples/sr/callforinputcovidrecoverysubmissions/2022-07-28/MaasaiIndigenousResidentsofNgorongoroConservationArea.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021).

109 Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), 298. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) noted that “Cambodia contends that the dispute between the Parties concerning this issue [being the border dispute] re-emerged in 2007–2008, following Cambodia’s request for the inscription of the site of the Temple on the UNESCO World Heritage list.”

110 SC Resolution 2347, 24 March 2017; UNESCO, Reinforcement of UNESCO’s Action for the Protection of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural Pluralism in the Event of Armed Conflict, Doc. 38C/49, 2 November 2015; Decision 39 COM/7, 2015.

111 Impact and Consequences of the Current Situation in Ukraine in All Aspects of UNESCO’s Mandate, Decision 7X/EX, 17 March 2022, para. 20; HRC Resolution 37/17, 22 March 2018, preamble and para. 10; HRC Resolution 33/20, 30 September 2016, preamble and para. 10; European Parliament, Resolution 2017/2206/UNI on Violation of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples including Land Grabbing, Doc. A/HRC/39/17, 3 July 2018; Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders, Report on Environmental Human Rights Defenders, Doc. A/71/281, 3 August 2016; Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights, Report on Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, Doc. A/71/3179, August 2016, paras. 68-75; ACHPR Resolution 196 (L) on Human Rights Defenders in Africa, 2011; Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, GA Resolution 53/144, 9 December 1998. See ICC-OTP, Policy on Cultural Heritage, 6.

112 SDG Indicators Data Collection Information and Focal Points no. 16.10.1, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/dataContacts/ (accessed 25 March 2021), providing the number of verified cases of killings, kidnapping, enforced disappearance, arbitrary detention and torture of journalists, associated media personnel, trade unionists, and human rights advocates in the previous 12 months.

113 UNESCO, Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, adopted by the 32nd session of the General Conference, 17 October 2003, preamble and Art. IV; UN Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights, Report of the Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights, Doc. A/HRC/31/59, 3 February 2016.

114 UN Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights, Right to Access to and Enjoyment of Cultural Heritage, para. 70.

115 HRC Resolution 37/17, 22 March 2018, para. 8; Prosecutor v. Al Mahdi, paras. 54–56; 28, First Expert Report ICC-01/12-01/15-214-AnxI-Red-3.

116 HRC Resolution 40/11, 2 April 2019; HRC Resolution 31/32, 20 April 2016.

117 Report of the African Commission’s Working Group of Experts on Indigenous Populations/Communities, adopted by the ACHPR at 28th ordinary session, 2005. In respect of the Ogiek in Mau Forest, Kenya, see ECtHR, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACtHPR) v. Republic of Kenya, Application no. 006/2012, Judgment, 26 May 2017 and Judgment (Reparations), 23 June 2022. The African Commission stated that this decision set “an important precedent in terms of the protection of the rights of vulnerable ethnic communities facing similar challenges and violations of their rights, the judgement entails that whatever conservation or development policies and actions states seek to pursue should not be at the expense of the rights and very existence of minority groups or indigenous populations/communities.” Press Statement of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 26 May 2017, https://www.achpr.org/pressrelease/detail?id=89 (accessed 25 March 2021); Special Rapporteur on Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Conservation Measures, para. 53 (referencing the evictions, arrests and killings by “eco-guards”); Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Expert Testimony at the Request of the African Court of Human and Peoples’ Rights on Reparations in the Case of African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights v Kenya, 29 April 2020, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/IPeoples/SR/TestimonyOgiek.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021)

118 In respect of violation of the rights of Indigenous peoples in Suriname on protected areas, see IACtHR, Kaliña and Lokono Peoples v. Suriname (Interpretation of the Judgment on Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs), Series C, No 309, 25 November 2015, para. 173. The court found that “[i]t [is] important to refer to the need to ensure the compatibility of the safeguard of protected areas with the adequate use and enjoyment of the traditional territories of indigenous peoples … the rights of the indigenous peoples and international environmental laws should be understood as complementary, rather than exclusionary, rights.”

119 Special Rapporteur on Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Conservation Measures, para. 55 (they expressed their concern at the destruction of homes, forced eviction and alleged torture and ill-treat of Chepang indigenous peoples in the Chitwan National Park in July 2020 by park rangers contrary to a Supreme Court decision on 16 October 2020); Report on the Situation of Indigenous Peoples in Nepal, Doc. A/HRC/12/34/Add.3, 20 July 2009, para 3; Communication from UN Special Rapporteurs on Enjoyment of Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, Adequate Housing, Indigenous Peoples, Adequate Housing, Non-Discrimination, and Torture, Doc. AL NPL 3/2020, 16 October 2020, https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25642 (accessed 25 March 2021); Decision 44 COM 7B.188, 2021, para. 10.

120 The OHCHR expressed concerns to the World Heritage Committee in 2014 about the possible evictions of Indigenous peoples because of inscription and disappearance of a Karen human rights defender after attending a meeting concerning a lawsuit against park officials related to the destruction of Karen housing. Special Rapporteur on Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Conservation Measures, para. 63; Letter from Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, Special Rapporteur on Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, Special Rapporteur on Human Rights Defenders, and Special Rapporteur on Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 28 February 2019, https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=24380 (accessed 25 March 2021), which urged that conservations measures be brought in line with human rights law and investigate and establish accountability for the destruction of Karen houses and disappearances of human rights defenders; Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (EMPRIP), Study of Indigenous Peoples’ Rights in the Context of Borders, Migration and Displacement, Doc. A/HRC/EMRIP/2019/Rev 1, 18 September 2019, para. 31 (referencing the decision of the Thai Supreme Administrative Court in Red Administrative Case no. OS 4/2561); Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Doc. A/HRC/45/34, 18 June 2020, para. 24 (which raised concerns about the “failure to ensure accountability for these violations including the enforced disappearance of Indigenous human rights defender, Pholachi Rakchongcharoen, who was later found murdered. … The Special Rapporteur sent a communication to the Government of Thailand, UNESCO World Heritage Committee and IUCN raising concerns about the alleged violations against the Karen, the lack of consultation, and the failure to seek their free, prior and informed consent, and also the impact that UNESCO World Heritage status, if awarded, might have on the Karen communities’ land rights and livelihoods”; Special Rapporteurs on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Joint Statement on Human Rights and the Environment, and on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders, 23 July 2021, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=27333&LangID=E (accessed 25 March 2021). Cf Decision 44 COM 8B.7, 2021, para. 6.

121 Decision 44 COM 7A.44, 2021, paras. 7, 8(j).

122 East African Court of Justice, Ololosokwan Village Council and Ors v. Attorney General of Tanzania, Application no. 15, 25 September 2018, First Instance, https://www.eacj.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Application-No.-15-of-2017-injunction-Ololosokwan-Village-Council-3-Others-vs-The-Attortney-Generl-of-URT.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021); SOC Mission Report: Ngoronogoro Conservation Area (United Republic of Tanzania), 13 June 2019; UNESCO, Ngorongoro Press Release, 21 March 2022, https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/2419 (accessed 25 March 2021); Carney et al., Significant Impact on Indigenous Women and Girls, para 24; Communication of UN Special Rapporteurs to Tanzania, Doc. AL TZA 3/2021, 9 February 2022, https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26938 (accessed 25 March 2021).

123 UNDRIP, Art. 8.

124 Special Rapporteur on Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Conservation Measures, para. 13; UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII), Study to Examine Conservation and Indigenous Peoples’ Human Rights, Doc. E/C.19/2018/9, 8 March 2019; ACHPR, Report of the African Commission’s Working Group of Experts on Indigenous Populations/Communities, 2005, 22–26; EMPRIP, Study on Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples with Respect to their Cultural Heritage, Doc. A/HRC/30/53, 19 August 2015, para. 55, which notes that inscription can have a negative impact for Indigenous peoples’ rights because outstanding universal value is often assessed at the expense of site’s significance to Indigenous peoples. It calls on the World Heritage Committee to “take effective measures to ensure that the protection of World Heritage does not undermine indigenous peoples’ relationship with their traditional lands, territories and resources, their livelihood and their rights to protect, exercise and develop their cultural heritage and expressions”; Advice no. 8(2015): Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples with Respect to Their Cultural Heritage, Doc. A/HRC/30/53, Annex, para 27. See Dowie Reference Dowie2009.

125 Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Conservation Measures, para. 17; see also Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous Peoples: Mission to Ecuador, Doc. A/HRC/4/32/Add.2, 28 December 2006; and Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples on Her Visit to Honduras, Doc. A/HRC/33/42/Add.2, 21 July 2016.

126 OHCHR, Call for Submissions “Protected Areas and Indigenous Peoples’ Rights: The Obligations of States and International Organisations, 2022, https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/calls-input/call-submissions-protected-areas-and-indigenous-peoples-rights (accessed 25 March 2021).

127 General Comment no. 7 The Right to Adequate Housing: Article 11(1) ICESCR: Forced Eviction, UN Doc. E/1998/22, 1998, Annex IV.

128 Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, Doc. E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2, 11 February 1998; see also Kälin Reference Kälin2008, Reference Kälin, Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, Loescher, Long and Sigona2014; MacGuire Reference MacGuire2018; GP20 Plan of Action for Advancing Prevention, Protection and solution for Internally Displaced People (2018–2020), Doc. A/HRC/41/40/Add.1, 12 June 2019.

129 Report of the Special Rapporteur on Adequate Housing as a Component of the Right to an Adequate Standard of Living, Doc. A/HRC/4/18, 5 February 2007, Annex.

130 Convention on the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons, 23 October 2009, entered into force 6 December 2012, https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-protection-and-assistance-internally-displaced-persons-africa (accessed 25 March 2021) .

131 Decision 37 COM 7 (Part III), 2013.

132 UNESCO, Adapting to Change: The State of Conservation of World Heritage Forests in 2011, World Heritage Papers no. 30, 2011; World Heritage, World Heritage Forests’ Special Issue no. 61, October 2011.

133 Greiber et al. Reference Greiber, Janki, Orellana, Savaresi and Shelton2009, 54–55; World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decision-making, 2000.

134 Decision CONF 2008 XVII.8, 2001; Decision 33 COM 5A, 2009; Decision 34 COM 5F.2, 2010; Decision 36 COM 5E, 2012; Istanbul Declaration on Tourism and Cultural: For the Benefit of All (UNWTO and UNESCO, December 2018; UN World Tourism Organization, Tourism at World Heritage International Sites: Challenges and Opportunities, 2015, https://webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2019-11/conference-tourism-culture.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021); ICOMOS, Heritage at Risk from Tourism, 1999, https://www.icomos.org/risk/2001/tourism.htm (accessed 25 March 2021); ICOMOS, Charter for the Interpretation and Presentation of Cultural Heritage Sites, 2008; IUCN, Key Results of the IUCN World Heritage Outlook, 2020, https://worldheritageoutlook.iucn.org/results (accessed 25 March 2021). Tourism visitation has been ranked as the third threat to properties and increasing since 2014, with tourism infrastructure ranked ninth, logging eighth, mining and quarrying fifteenth, and dams eleventh.

135 World Heritage Committee, Report on the Mission to Kakadu National Park, Doc. WHC-98/CONF.203/INF.185, 29 November 1998.

136 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders on His Mission to Australia, Doc. A/HRC/37/51/Add.3, 28 February 2018, para. 79, which expresses concern about the retaliation against Indigenous defenders campaigning against proposed Carmichael coal mine through their exclusion from consultations on related law and policy development.

137 Letter from the UN Special Rapporteurs on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, and Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, Doc. AL SWE 2/2022, 3 February 2022, which concerns the negative impact of a British mining company and its Swedish subsidiary on the way of life of the Sámi.

138 Letter from the Working Group on the Issues of Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises to the Special Rapporteur on Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, and Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Doc. AL BWA 3/2021, 17 November 2021, https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/fr/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26804 (accessed 25 March 2021), which relates to the activities of Canadian based oil and gas corporation. And their detrimental impact on the San people; World Heritage Committee, Decision 44 COM 7B.80, 2021, para. 7, which does not cover the impact of Indigenous peoples.

139 Case C-44-17, Commission v. Poland (Białowieża Forest), Grand Chamber, 17 April 2018; Report of the Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights: Visit to Poland, Doc. A/HRC/43/50/Add.1, 12 May 2020, paras. 36, 81, 83.

140 Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights, Doc. A/HRC/44/40/Add.1, 6 April 2020, paras. 54, 83: “These communities for years raised concerns about the negative impacts that loss of land to commercial plantations and logging have on their health, well-being, housing and food security” and “States continue to find devious ways to deprive indigenous communities of the land they have traditionally relied upon, for example by disingenuously declaring their land a “forest reserve” while allowing corporate actors to exploit the area”; Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, Doc. A/HRC/42/47/Add.2, 8 July 2019, paras. 26, 39: “Special Rapporteur urges the Government to carry out human rights impact assessments at each stage of the projects, while ensuring the meaningful participation of those affected in a transparent manner and facilitating easy access to information”; Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous Peoples, Doc. A/HRC/9/9/Add.1, 15 August 2008, paras. 270–74; Report by the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous Peoples, Summary of Communications Transmitted and Replies Received, Doc. A/HRC/12/34/Add.1, 18 September 2009, paras. 242–46.

141 See CESCR, General Comment no. 15 on the Right to Water, Doc. E/C.12/2002/11, 20 January 2003; Guidelines on the Right to Water in Africa, adopted by the 26th Extraordinary Session of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, July 2019, https://www.achpr.org/presspublic/publication?id=83 (accessed 25 March 2021).

142 CERD, Concluding Observations on the Combined Initial and Second to Fifth Periodic Report of Honduras, Doc. CERD/C/HND/CO/1-5, 13 March 2014; Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples on her visit to Honduras, Doc. A/HRC/33/42/Add.2, 21 July 2016, para. 22 (murder and forced disappearances), paras. 49, 59 (no appropriate consultations with these Indigenous peoples had been held and that there had been no proper studies to assess the impact of their territorial rights); Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Doc. A/HRC/39/17, 10 August 2018, paras. 61, 62, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (19 July 2013) and UN Special Rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples (4 March 2016) murder of Indigenous Lenca defenders protesting against logging, mining and hydroelectric projects.

143 ACHPR, Admissibility of Complaint, 2019; Compilation prepared by OHCHR: DRC, Doc. A/HRC/WG.6/19/COD/2, 14 February 2014; ACHPR, Report of the African Commission’s Working Group on Indigenous Peoples/Communities, Doc. DOC/OS (XXXIV)/345, 20 November 2003, 13.

144 African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Centre for Minority Rights Development (Kenya) and Minority Rights Group International on behalf of Endorois Welfare Council v. Kenya (Merits, Provisional Measures), Communication no. 276/2003, 25 November 2009; ACHPR Resolution 197(L)2011 on the Protection of the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights in the Context of the World Heritage Convention and the Designation of the Lake Bogoria as a World Heritage Site; Independent Expert in the Field of Cultural Rights, Access to Cultural Heritage, Protection of Indigenous Peoples’ Rights in the Context of the World Heritage Convention and the Designation of Lake Bogoria as a World Heritage Site, Doc. A/HRC/17/38, 21 March 2011, para. 20; ACHPR Resolution 197, 5 November 2011 The African Commission urged the Committee and UNESCO to review the Operational Guidelines, in cooperation with the UNPFII, so that the Convention is implemented in conformity with the UNDRIP. It also endorsed the creation of a mechanism that enabled Indigenous peoples to advise the World Heritage Committee and participate effectively in its deliberations.

145 Decision 44 COM 7B.109, 2021; Human Rights Council, WGUPR Summary of Stakeholders’ submission on Russian Federation, Doc. A/HRC/WG.6/30/RUS/3, 9 March 2018; Report of Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous Peoples, Situation of Indigenous Peoples in the Russian Federation, Doc. A/HRC/15/37/Add.5, 23 June 2010; CERD, Concluding Observations on 23rd and 24th Reports of Russian Federation, Doc. CERD/C/RUS/CO/23-24, 20 September 2017.

146 Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the UN “Protect, Respect and Remedy’ Framework, Doc. A/HRC/17/31, 21 March 2011 (Ruggie Principles); OECD, Guidelines for Multilateral Enterprises, 2011, https://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/mne/48004323.pdf (accessed 20 October 2021; General Comment no. 24 (2017) on State Obligations under the ICESCR in the Context of Business Activities, Doc. E/C.12/GC/24, 10 August 2017. See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, State Reporting Guidelines and Principles on Articles 21 and 24 of the African Charter relating to Extractive Industries, Human Rights and the Environment, https://www.achpr.org/presspublic/publication?id=75 (accessed 25 March 2021).

147 International Council on Mining and Minerals (ICMM), Mining and Protected Areas: Position Statement, https://www.icmm.com/en-gb/members/member-requirements/position-statements/protected-areas (accessed 25 March 2021). These should be compared with UN Environment Programme, Principles for Responsible Investment. Human Rights and the Extractive Industry, https://www.unpri.org/download?ac=1655 (accessed 25 March 2021), and the broader Mining Principles, which include respect for human rights and cultures of “communities affected by [mining] activities” (Principle 3) and covers avoiding involuntary resettlement, respect of Indigenous peoples and work to obtain free, prior and informed consent. ICMM, Mining Principles, http://www.icmm.com/en-gb/members/member-requirements/mining-principles (accessed 25 March 2021).

148 Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, adopted by UNWTO General Assembly in 1999 and GA Resolution 65/212, 21 December 2001, which cover protections for vulnerable populations, cultural sustainability, and promotion of fundamental human rights.

149 IBRD and World Bank, The World Bank Environmental and Social Framework, 2017; Environmental and Social Standards (ESS8), Cultural Heritage, https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/837721522762050108-0290022018/original/ESFFramework.pdf#page=99&zoom=80 (accessed 25 March 2021); ESS7, Indigenous Peoples/Sub-Saharan African Historically Underserved Traditional Local Communities, https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/837721522762050108-0290022018/original/ESFFramework.pdf#page=89&zoom=80 (accessed 25 March 2021); World Bank and OECD 2016.

150 The Importance of Public Spaces for the Exercise of Cultural Rights. Report of Special Rapporteur in field of Cultural Rights, Doc. A/74/255, 30 July 2019; United Cities and Local Governments (UCL), Culture 21: Actions. Commitments on the Role of Culture to Sustainable Cities, 2015, https://agenda21culture.net/sites/default/files/files/culture21-actions/c21_015_en.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021); ESS8, Cultural Heritage. In respect of environmental impact assessments, see Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Merits, 20 April 2010, [2010] ICJ Rep 2010, para. 204; Certain Activities Carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), Judgment, 16 December 2015, [2015] ICJ Reports 665, paras. 145–72.

151 IUCN, Implementation of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

152 Stockholm Declaration, Principle 24; World Heritage Convention, Art. 6.

153 Stockholm Declaration, Principle 1.

154 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 12 August 1992, 31 ILM 874 (1992), Principles 1, 2; GA Resolution 70/1, 25 September 2015, Preamble referencing importance of “healthy environment’ for people, and SDGs 13, 14, 15.

155 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders on His Mission to Australia, Doc. A/HRC/37/51/Add.3, 28 February 2018, which “expressed concern about credible reports of retaliation against indigenous defenders in the form of their exclusion from consultations on key policies and legislative proposals.” UN CESCR, Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties under Articles 16 and 17 of the Covenant, Doc. E/C.12/AUS/CO/4, 12 June 2019, para. 27, which “concerned at the negative impact of climate change on the right to an adequate standard of living, including the right to food and the right to water, affecting in particular indigenous peoples, in spite of the States party’s recognition of the challenges imposed by climate change”; UN CRC, Concluding Observations on the Combined Fifth and Sixth Periodic Reports of Australia, Doc. CRC/C/AUS/CO/5-6, 1 November 2019, which states that “[t]he Committee is very concerned about the State Party’s position that the Convention does not extend to protection from climate change. The Committee emphasizes that the effects of climate change have an undeniable impact on children’s rights, for example the right to life, survival and development, non-discrimination, health and an adequate standard of living.”

156 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Relating to the Enjoyment of a Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, Doc. A/74/161, 15 July 2019, para. 38; Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, Doc. A/HRC/30/39/Add.2, 6 July 2015, paras. 1, 27, 72–74; Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), Concluding Observations on the Fifth and Seventh Periodic Reports of Kenya, Doc. CERD/C/KEN/CO/5-7, paras. 19–20; UNEP and European Union, Support to Sustainable Development in Lake Turkana and its River Basins: Results of Modelling of Future Scenarios: Technical Report, 2021, https://www.unepdhi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2021/06/Basin-Modelling-and-Prioritization-of-Rehabilitation-Measures-report_Final_17062021.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021).

157 Joint Communication by UN Special Rapporteurs, 9 January 2014, https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=13751 (accessed 30 August 2021), which outlines multiple human rights violations; UPR Brazil Report of the OHCHR, Doc. A/HRC/WG.6/27/BRA/2, 24 February 2017; Report on a Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, para. 17; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the Pan-Amazon Region, Doc. OAS/Ser.L/V/II. Doc 176, 29 September 2019.

158 World Heritage Committee, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Policy Document on the Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties, Doc. WHC-07/16.GA/10, 2008.

159 World Heritage Committee, Decision 44 WH 7C, 2021; GA Resolution 23 GA 11, 2021; World Heritage Committee, Updated Policy Document on the Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties, Doc. WHC/21/44.COM/7C, 4 June 2021. Cf World Heritage Committee, Reports of World Heritage Centre and the Advisory Bodies. 5D. World Heritage Convention and Sustainable Development, Doc. WHC/21/44/COM.5D, 4 June 2021, para. 33; Climate Change, Culture and Cultural Rights: Report of the Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights, Doc. A/75/298, 10 August 2020, paras. 31–33.

160 Climate Change, Culture and Cultural Rights, Annex; Human Rights Depend on a Healthy Biosphere: Good Practice. Supplementary Information on the Report the Special Rapporteur on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Relating to the Enjoyment of a Safe, Clean, Healthy, and Sustainable Environment, Doc. A/75/161, 21 September 2020, Annex; Certain Activities Carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica) Judgment and Compensation Order, 2 February 2018, [2018] ICJ Reports 15, Separate Opinion of Judge Cancado Trindade; IACtHR, Case of the Indigenous Communities of the Lhaka Honhat (Our Land) Association v. Argentina, Judgment on Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 400, 6 February 2020; IACtHR, Advisory Opinion on the Environment and Human Rights, State Obligations in Relation to the Environment in the Context of the Protection and Guarantee of the Rights to Life and to Personal Integrity, Advisory Opinion OC-23/18, 15 November 2017, https://elaw.org/system/files/attachments/publicresource/English version of AdvOp OC-23.pdf (accessed 25 March 2021); HRC Resolution 41/21 on Human Rights and Climate Change, Doc. A/HRC/RES/41/21, 9 July 2019; ACHPR, Resolution 342(LVIII) on Climate and Human Rights in Africa, 2016.

161 HRC Resolution 40/11 on Recognizing the Contribution of Human Rights Defenders to the Enjoyment of Human Rights, Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development, Doc., A/HRC/RES/40/11, 21 March 2019; UNEP, Promoting Greater Protection for Environmental Defenders: Policy Paper (2018), https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22769/Environmental_Defenders_Policy_2018_EN.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed 25 March 2021); Human Rights Depend on a Healthy Biosphere: Good Practices. Supplementary Information on the Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Issue of Human Obligations Relating to the Enjoyment of a Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, Doc. A/75/161, 21 September 2020, Annex, paras. 63–67.

162 Stockholm Declaration, Principles 22; Rio Declaration, Principles 10, 13, 19, 20 (Women), 22 (Indigenous Peoples); Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Marking and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, 25 June 1998, 2161 UNTS 447; UNDRIP, Arts. 40, 41; SDG 16 (Access to Justice and Inclusive Societies); UNEP, Promoting Greater Protection; Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean, Doc. LC/PUB.2018/8/, 4 March 2018.

163 CEDAW General Recommendation no. 37, 2018, 9–11; see also Climate Change, Culture and Cultural Rights, paras. 7–8.

164 Study on the Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Finance on Indigenous Peoples’ Rights, Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Doc. A/HRC/36/46, 1 November 2017.

165 UN Charter, Art 104; UNESCO Constitution, Art. XII. See Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, [1980] ICJ Reports 73, 89–90, para. 37; International Law Commission (ILC), Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organisations, with Commentaries, Doc. (2011)A/66/10, 2011 (ARIO Commentaries), 50.

166 UNESCO Constitution, Art. I(1); UN Charter, Art. 1.

167 Articles on Responsibility of International Organizations, Doc. A/66/10, 9 December 2011, Art. 3 (ARIO).

168 Differences Relating to Immunity from Legal Process of a Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, Advisory Opinion, 29 April 1999, ICJ Report 1999, p 62, pp 88–89, para. 66; ARIO Commentaries, 53; Wellens Reference Wellens2002, 15–16. In respect of immunity, see Convention on Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies, 21 November 1947, 33 UNTS 261; Aziz and See Reference Aziz, See, Chesterman, Malone, Villalpando and Ivanovic2019.

169 ARIO, Art. 14. See ARIO Commentaries, 66, citing UN Legal Council, Note, 12 October 2009. The advisory bodies, ICCROM as an intergovernmental organization (and possibly the IUCN) would similarly fall within this body of law.

170 Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, Doc. GA 56/83, 12 December 2001, in particular Art. 33 (ARSIWA); ILC, Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, with Commentaries, Doc. (2001)A/56/10, 2001 (ARSIWA Commentaries).

171 World Heritage Committee, Policy Document, 7, para. 20; Operational Guidelines, para. 14bis.

172 UNESCO, Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, Parts VI, VII, VIII.

173 ARSIWA, Art. 16. See ARSIWA Commentaries, 65–67.

174 Ruggie Principles, Principle 1.

175 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Co Ltd (Belgium v. Spain), [1970] ICJ Reports 3, 37.

176 Ruggie Principles, Part II, 14.

178 Springer Reference Springer2016, 3, citing Makageon, Jonas, and Roe Reference Makageon, Jonas, Dilke, Makageon, Jonas and Roe2014. Cf Pillay, Knox, and MacKinnon Reference Pillay, Knox and MacKinnon2020.

179 See, e.g., Prosecutor v. Miodrag Jokic; ICC, Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, Judgment and Sentencing, ICC-01/12-01/15, Trial Chamber VII ICC, 27 September 2016.

180 Prosecutor v. Al Mahdi; Prosecutor v. Al Hassan.

181 Rome Statute on the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 90; ICC-OTP, Policy on Cultural Heritage; ICC, Press Release, 6 November 2019, https://www.icc-cpi.int/pages/item.aspx?name=171106_otp_unesco (accessed 25 March 2021); UNESCO, Reinforcement of UNESCO’s Action, para. 29.

182 See Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), 317.

183 See Ololosokwan Village Council v. Attorney General of Tanzania, para 58.

184 See Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v Thailand), 318; Kaliña and Lokono Peoples v. Suriname, para. 300; ACtHPR v. Republic of Kenya, 47.

185 See Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v Thailand), 36; Kaliña and Lokono Peoples v. Suriname, paras. 274ff; ACtHPR v. Republic of Kenya, 32–38.

186 See Centre for Minority Rights Development (Kenya) and MRG v. Kenya ACHPR; Prosecutor v. Al Mahdi; ACtHPR v Republic of Kenya, 15–31.

187 See Prosecutor v. Al Mahdi, paras. 68–71 (apology); Kaliña and Lokono Peoples v. Suriname, paras. 292ff (creation of community development fund), 307–8 (training measures), and 310–16 (apology and publication of Judgment); ACtHPR v. Republic of Kenya, 39–43 (recognition of Ogiek as Indigenous people, public apology, erection of public monument, and establishment of development fund).

188 ARIO, Arts. 28–40; ARSIWA, Arts. 28–39.

189 Van Boven/Bassiouni Principles; ICC-OTP, Policy on Cultural Heritage. See Shelton Reference Shelton2015; Novic Reference Novic, Francioni and Vrdoljak2020; Vrdoljak Reference Vrdoljak, Francioni and Vrdoljak2020.

190 The Rome Statute enables the ICC to award reparations – that is, restitution, compensation, and rehabilitation – to victims in an order against a convicted person and where appropriate order it be met through the Trust Fund for Victims established under the same instruments. It states that the court must establish principles on reparations to or on behalf of victims: Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 90, Arts. 75, 79 (Rome Statute); UN Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court. Official Records, vol. 1: Final documents, Doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/WGPM/L.2/Add.7, 15 June – 17 July 1998. To this end, the Assembly of States Parties and the court have repeatedly recalled the Van Boven/Bassiouni Principles. Resolution RC/Res.2 on the Impact of the Rome Statute System on Victims and Affected Communities, 8 June 2010.

191 Prosecutor v. Al Mahdi, para. 53.

192 See Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Note by the Secretary-General, Doc. A/77/238, 19 July 2022, para. 72 (a).

193 Resolution 20GA 13, 2020, para. 20 (iiii).

194 UN Secretary-General has called for a “fuller use’ of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) by the UN to meet present-day challenges and when implementing the 2030 Agenda. UN Secretary-General, Highest Aspiration, 12.

195 Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, UNGA Resolution 40/34, 29 November 1985; Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, Doc. A/RES/60/147, 21 March 2006; Updated Set of Principles for the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights through Action to Combat Impunity, Doc. E/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1, 8 February 2005. See Recommendation on Rights of Indigenous Peoples, para. 72(d).

196 See Note of Secretary-General, para. 72(c).

197 See Note of Secretary-General, para. 72(b).

198 World Heritage Committee, Declaration of Principles.

199 UN Secretary-General, Highest Aspiration, 1.

200 UN Secretary-General, Highest Aspiration, 12.

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