The southern cassowary Casuarius casuarius johnsonii is endemic to the tropical rainforests of north-eastern Queensland, Australia. This species is Australia's largest bird and holds a reputation for being dangerous. Cassowaries and ostriches are the only birds world-wide that have caused human deaths by physical attack. Incidents occur every year in Queensland, most at Mission Beach (110 km south of Cairns) and Lake Barrine (39 km south-west of Cairns), but previously also at Mount Whitfield in Cairns. The incidence of cassowary attacks in Queensland is reviewed. Data were obtained for 221 cassowary attacks, of which 150 were against humans, 75% of these by cassowaries fed previously by people. The feeding of cassowaries appears to change their natural behaviour, making them bold and aggressive. Victims were chased or charged in 71% of the incidents, and kicked in 15%. Less frequent actions included pushing, pecking, jumping on, butting with the head and snatching food. The cassowaries appeared to be expecting or soliciting food from humans (73% of the incidents), defending food (5%), and defending themselves (15%) or their chicks or eggs (7%). Contrary to popular belief, jogging did not incite cassowaries to attack. Although cassowaries should not be considered dangerous, they can cause serious injuries. Seven attacks against humans resulted in serious injuries (puncture wounds, lacerations, broken bone) and subsequently one death, caused by cassowaries kicking or jumping on victims. In the single fatal attack, the victim was trying to kill the cassowary. Four of the seven seriously injured victims were crouching or lying on the ground.

Adaptations to extreme environmental conditions were investigated in a detailed study of red foxes Vulpes vulpes inhabiting a desert region of Saudi Arabia. Forty-two adult foxes were live-trapped during 3 years of field work. In contrast to red foxes studied in other areas, no strict territoriality was observed in this population. Although close interaction (separation < 1 m) was more common between members of the same, rather than different, social groups, medium distance interactions were similar. Further, intra-group encounters were much less common than for foxes in the U.K., and foxes did not avoid each other at territory boundaries. All foxes used food-rich sites associated with human activity, and aggregations of up to four foxes were regularly seen in these areas. It is suggested that the combination of an extremely harsh environment, with spatially and temporally variable food supplies, leads to the formation of loosely knit social groups. Saudi Arabian red foxes followed Bergmann's rule in being considerably smaller than those found in cooler areas. They also had a lighter coloured pelage than red foxes typical of Europe and North America. These morphological differences may represent adaptations to the low availability of food and rest sites in the desert.

Pupping seasonality, annual pup production, reproductive rate and sex ratio at birth were determined for the Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus colony at Cabo Blanco, the only surviving population of the species which still shows a colony structure. Data were collected by means of a monitoring programme that operated continuously in the main reproductive areas of the population during the period March 1993–May 1997. Most (84%) of the pups observed were born in two caves separated by a short distance. Although both caves were used by females to bear the pups, preferences greatly fluctuated from season to season with no apparent trend. Reproduction occurred throughout the year with a small peak of births in October. This unusual lack of seasonality is associated with the low latitudinal location of the colony and the effect of the upwelling that provides constant food throughout the year. The neonatal sex ratio did not differ significantly from 1:1 and the estimated annual productivity ranged from 44–58 pups. Taking into account population numbers, the annual birth rates were estimated to range from 0.3 to 0.43 pups per reproductive female, an extremely low rate when compared to other pinniped populations, particularly those of a similar size. Such low rates may be either an evolutionary determined characteristic of the species or a demographic consequence of the low population density over the last few centuries. Coupled with high pup mortality rates, this may account for the observed non-recovery of the population.

Whistle vocalizations of five odontocete cetaceans, the false killer whale P. crassidens, short-finned pilot whale G. macrorhynchus, long-finned pilot whale G. melas, white-beaked dolphin L. albirostris and Risso's dolphin G. griseus, were analysed and summarized quantitatively. Recordings were acquired from a number of locations and encounters. Significant differences were found between species and, to a lesser extent, between locations. The calls of the two pilot whale species are distinct despite their close relatedness, and similar size and morphology. This may be due to selection pressures to maintain distinctiveness. The variance was partitioned into between-species, between-location (within species) and within-location factors. For the frequency variables, variation between-species is high relative to variation between locations. Thus geographic variation is a relatively minor effect, compared to the many processes which cause interspecific differences. The within-location component includes such factors as social context, behaviour and group composition. This component is of a similar magnitude to the between-species component, indicating that whistles vary considerably with these factors. Significant between-location differences may be attributable to these confounding factors. For whistle duration, most of the variation occurred within location. There is less significant variation in duration across species compared with the frequency measures. This study highlights the need to collect samples across all potential strata whenever possible, and provides a framework for future, more comprehensive work.

The pantropical red-footed booby Sula sula is one of the most polymorphic seabirds. In the Indian Ocean most extant colonies hold white morph adults except on Europa Island (southern Mozambique Channel), where adults are of the white-tailed brown morph and on Tromelin Island (western Indian Ocean), where one-third of the birds are of the white-tailed brown morph and two-thirds are of the white morph. On Tromelin, the morph ratio has remained constant over the last 40 years. An extinct colony (Glorieuses Islands, northern Mozambique Channel) once supported a white-tailed brown morph population. These results suggest that the colonies of the western Indian ocean do not constitute one great gene pool where exchanges occur, but are isolated at various degree from each other. Particularly, the population of Europa is the only current population of the Indian Ocean constituted almost entirely of white-tailed brown morph, suggesting that it is isolated from other nearby colonies. Possible causes of isolation are discussed in the light of oceanic features of the Mozambique Channel. Although further studies are needed to understand the adaptive significance of plumage coloration in red-footed boobies, I suggest that white-tailed brown morph at Europa may act as a defensive camouflage against kleptoparasitism by great frigatebirds Fregata minor and brown skuas Catharacta antarctica.

The pattern of daily activity of the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx L. was studied by radio-telemetry in the Białowieża Primeval Forest (eastern Poland). Radio-tracking of 18 lynx was done by 24-h continuous observations and by sampling on a daily basis. Lynx were active mostly at night. There was generally one peak of activity between 15:00 and 07:00 which, however, decreased slightly between 20:00 and 22:00. On average, lynx were moving for 6.5 h/day. In males, 73% of locomotory activity occurred at night, whereas females were active as long during the daylight as during the night. Movement bouts of females were shorter than those of males (1.1 h vs 2.1 h) but more frequent (4.2 vs 3.0 bouts/day). General patterns of activity of females with and without kittens were similar. However, females with kittens were active twice as long per day than non-reproducing females. In May–August (intensive care for kittens), reproducing females were active 26% longer than in September–April. Non-reproducing females showed the opposite pattern; they were active 60% less in May–August compared with September–April. Locomotory activity of adult males was 30–70% longer in January–March (mating season) than in other seasons. The pattern of lynx activity was shaped predominantly by searching for and consuming large prey. The lynx were active for the longest time during the days when they searched for prey but made no kill (12.5 h/day on average) and for the shortest time on the first day after killing a deer (1.6 h/day). Their moving activity increased steadily in the following days, reaching 6.8 h/day on the fourth day of consuming a killed deer. Ambient temperatures and rainfall did not significantly affect lynx activity, but there was little movement most of the time in heavy rain, and all day when the temperature was above 30 °C.

In May 1998, an expedition into northern Myanmar obtained detailed descriptive data on a new species of muntjac called the leaf deer, first discovered on a survey the previous year and characterized primarily by its diagnostic DNA compared to other muntjac species. Weights, measurements, and physical data were obtained from 12 freshly killed leaf deer, along with partial measurements from 90 head pieces of leaf deer found in village huts. Except for the diminutive, unbranched antlers on males, averaging 3.2 cm long, older male and female leaf deer were similar in size and appearance, with average weights of 12.1 kg and 11.8 kg for males and females, respectively. When compared with other species, leaf deer are one of the smallest, and perhaps one of the most primitive, extant muntjacs. Two of the most distinguishing characteristics of this new species are the relatively long, equal-sized canines in both older adult males (average 2.4 cm long) and older adult females (average 2.2 cm long), and the lack of spotting on the coats of a newborn and two juveniles estimated to be < 2 months old. All older males (n = 3) and 40% of older females (n = 5) had healed wounds on one or both ears. These wounds, in addition to the large canines in both sexes, may indicate that females as well as males compete actively for resources. Although still relatively abundant throughout mid-elevation dense evergreen forests, between the northern extremities of the Mai Kha and Mali Kha Rivers in north Myanmar, the currently known distribution of the leaf deer is outside any protected areas. Persistent hunting by local people with snares, dogs, and crossbows for a thriving market trade in deer leather, have caused noticeable decreases in numbers of leaf deer captured over recent years and could threaten the future survival of this new species.

The selection of roost cavities by the threatened New Zealand long-tailed bat Chalinolobus tuberculatus was examined in unmodified temperate southern beech Nothofagus rainforest in Fiordland, New Zealand. We radio-tracked 73 bats during spring–autumn of 1993–1997 to 155 day roosts, all of which were in trees. One hundred and forty-nine roosts were in cavities: 84 in live trunks, 33 in dead trunks, 32 in large branches (seven in dead branches, 25 in live); and the remaining six (occupied by solitary bats) were beneath loose bark. We compared characteristics of the 84 roost cavities in live trunks with 57 random available cavities also in live trunks. Cavities used by C. tuberculatus were not a random subset of available cavities. In comparison to available cavities, bat roosts were all located in knot hole cavities, were high from the ground, and had little surrounding vegetation. All roosts were dry inside. Bats used a higher proportion of cavities which had medium sized entrances and internal cavities, and thicker cavity walls. A logistic regression model incorporating nine cavity variables classified roost and available cavities correctly 97% and 91% of the time, respectively. Distance to the nearest vegetation, cavity condition (wet or dry inside), height from the ground, and to a lesser extent internal cavity height, explained significant proportions of the variation between roost and available cavities. Bats changed roost sites virtually every day and it appeared that suitable cavities were abundant in the unlogged forests of the study area. It is unlikely that modified forests and forests managed for timber production contain such a large pool of potential roosting cavities.

Based on data obtained from 3 years' fieldwork in Okinawajima and adjacent islands of the central Ryukyus, Japan, various physical and human-related beach characters were assessed for their relative influence on beach selection by nesting sea turtles using multiple regression analysis. Of the 23 characters considered, sand softness (measured by a specially designed tool) (positive), distance from the nearest human settlement (positive), presence of lagoon (positive), beach length (negative), and beach height (positive) were selected as influential variables in descending order. Explanations were attempted for such results in the light of correlates of these beach characters with natural and artificial factors that are believed to impact the nesting success of female sea turtles.

Patterns of growth were studied between 1993 and 1996 in a population of Bibron's agama Agama impalearis from an arid area in the central Jbilet Mountains, western Morocco. Non-linear regressions were used to model snout–vent lengths (SVL) and body masses of individuals caught during 1993–94 against skeletochronology age estimates. The overlap between male and female asymptotic SVLs (A) was negligible demonstrating sexual dimorphism, although there was no evidence of differences in characteristic growth rates (k) between sexes (males: A = 119.43 ± 2.29 mm and k = 0.849 ± 0.09 [month-1], females: A = 108.59 ± 3.19 mm and k = 1.079 ± 0.162 [month-1]). Asymptotic body mass differed substantially between sexes (males: 71.2 ± 3.1 g, females: 45.8 ± 4.2 g), but corresponding characteristic growth rates were similar (0.753 ± 0.339 and 0.789 ± 0.623 [month-1], respectively). The mark–recapture method provided generally higher and more reliable asymptotic size estimates (using the logistic-by-length non-linear regression model) than the skeletochronology-based estimates. Growth parameters were also estimated on an individual year basis. Only male characteristic growth rate showed a significant year-to-year variation (0.010 ± 0.006 to 0.024 ± 0.007 [day-1]), although this may have been due to a lack of statistical power. Annual variation in the absolute growth rate was detected only in hatchlings (0.087 ± 0.018 to 0.273 ± 0.132 mm.day-1) and adult males (0.089 ± 0.030 to 0.206 ± 0.100 mm.day-1).

In a laboratory experiment that permitted both observations of the behaviour of individuals and the monitoring of small populations, the role of ‘intraguild predation’ in the elimination of the freshwater amphipod Gammarus duebeni celticus by the introduced G. pulex was examined. Over 18 weeks, deaths in single and mixed species replicates were monitored. Rates of ‘mortality’ (deaths not due to cannibalism or predation) did not differ between the species. Gammarus d. celticus, however, was more cannibalistic than G. pulex and, in both species, males were more often cannibalized than females. In mixed species replicates, the mean proportions of animals preyed upon did not differ among replicates with differing starting proportions of the two species, nor was there a difference between the sexes in numbers preyed upon. G. pulex, however, preyed more frequently on G. d. celticus than vice versa, and this became more pronounced over time. In 87% of mixed species replicates, G. pulex eliminated G. d. celticus. The results support the proposition that intraguild predation may be the primary mechanism whereby G. pulex rapidly replaces G. d. celticus in freshwater. Integrating behavioural observations with population level monitoring may thus link pattern and process in behaviour and ecology.

Wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus and house mice Mus domesticus are two of the commonest and most intensively studied British mammals. However, relative to the vast literature on non-commensal and laboratory house mice (Berry, 1981, 1991), and woodland wood mice (Flowerdew, Gurnell & Gipps, 1985; Flowerdew, 1991) little is known of the ecology of either species in and around farm buildings. Farm buildings and their surroundings are particularly important for house mice, which are a major stored-product pest (Meehan, 1984). In Britain they live largely indoors but also make limited use of hedges and fields in the summer (Rowe & Swinney, 1977; Montgomery & Dowie, 1993). Wood mice are very abundant on agricultural land, and occasionally use buildings (Green, 1979; Montgomery & Dowie, 1993; Tew & Macdonald, 1993).

Paracrobeles psammophilus sp. nov. (Nematoda: Cephalobidae) is described from soil of the Dehesa de El Saler (province of Valencia, Spain). This is the second record of a species of the genus Paracrobeles Heyns, 1968. The new species is characterized by rounded cheilorhabdions and the large spicules and gubernaculum of males.

The aim of this study was to describe the structure of social calls produced by Kuhl's pipistrelles Pipistrellus kuhlii. Bats foraging around street lamps in the Campania region, Southern Italy, were recorded. Calls were produced by bats during chases and, similarly to those of Pipistrellus pipistrellus, were probably used to repel conspecifics from hunting sites. Calls often had three components, lasted on average 34 ms and contained most energy at about 17 kHz. A positive correlation was found between the frequencies of maximum amplitude of echolocation and social calls. Social calls from two adjacent populations differed in their peak frequencies, and possible hypotheses for this variation are given. The structure of P. kuhlii social calls was compared with those of the 45 and 55 kHz P. pipistrellus phonic types. Kuhl's pipistrelle calls lasted longer and showed lower values of minimum and peak frequencies. These differences can help to discriminate between field recordings of P. kuhlii and P. pipistrellus where the two species occur sympatrically.

The set-aside scheme, whereby land is removed from arable production, is primarily aimed at manipulating agricultural surplus within the European Community, but has potentially great consequences for biodiversity and wildlife management (Feber et al., 1995; Macdonald et al., 1998; Sotherton 1998). Managed inappropriately, set-aside could prove environmentally damaging by reducing biodiversity and directly harming certain species, such as ground-nesting birds (Thompson, 1993). Conversely, appropriately managed set-aside could foster desirable ecological communities, with enhanced populations and biodiversity.

Among mammals, non-offspring nursing is the most extreme form of communal parenting. This is because lactation is the most energetically costly part of parental investment (Clutton-Brock, 1991; Packer, Lewis & Pusey, 1992). Non-offspring nursing is most common in species characterized by large litters and small kin groups (Packer et al., 1992; e.g. lions Panthera leo: Pusey & Packer, 1994). Although non-offspring nursing has also been reported in monotocous species (e.g. water buffalo Bubalus bubalus, Murphey et al., 1995; African elephant Loxodonta africana: Dublin, 1983; Lee, 1987; Indian elephant Elaphus maximus: MacKay, 1973; Rapaport & Haight, 1987; fallow deer Cervus dama: San José & Braza, 1993) it is almost always associated with reproductive errors (Riedman, 1982) such as milk theft or exclusive adoption (Packer et al., 1992). However, simultaneous non-offspring nursing in monotocous species has been reported in some bat species (e.g. McCracken, 1984; Eales, Bullock & Slater, 1988), African elephants (Lee, 1987), and captive Indian elephants (Rapaport & Haight, 1987). Recent research, however, suggests that nutritive non-offspring nursing in African elephants is rarer than previously thought as most reported instances were probably non-lactating juveniles allowing infants to suckle (Lee & Moss, 1986; Lee, 1987, 1989).

The morphology of the spermathecae (seminal receptacles) was studied in the grapsid crab Chasmagnathus granulata, both from the macroscopic and the microscopic points of view. Female adult crabs were collected throughout the year. Once in the laboratory, the right spermatheca was fixed in Bouin solution; histological sections were stained with haematoxilin–eosin. The observations indicated that the spermathecae belonged to the ‘ventral type’ described by Diesel (1991), related to the ‘hard female’ mating system of C. granulata described previously. They presented two distinct zones: the inner one (white-coloured), where the double layer oviduct opened ventrally; and the outer one, of translucent, ‘jelly-like’ appearance, where the communication with the genital duct could be observed. The spermatozoa were only observed in the ‘jelly-like’ zone, but not as discrete packets, suggesting that spermatozoa from different matings could mix in the spermathecae of C. granulata. The spermathecae also showed seasonal variation, with the lowest degree of development observed during autumn. Post-moulted females always showed collapsed spermathecae.