Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T17:21:24.168Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Crisis stability or general stability? Assessing Northeast Asia’s absence of war and prospects for liberal transition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 June 2015

JONG KUN CHOI
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Is the relatively long peace of Northeast Asia a result of crisis stability or general stability? The article introduces two stability concepts – crisis and general stability. Crisis stability occurs when both sides in military crisis are so secure due to its military capability and are able to wait out a surprise attack fully confident that it would be able to respond with a punishing counter attack. On the other hand, general stability prevails when two powers greatly prefer peace even to a victorious war whether crisis stability exists or not, simply because war has become inconceivable as a means of solving any political disagreements and conflicts. While crisis stability entails delicate balance of military power from the deterrence literature of security studies, general stability bases its logic of inquiry on constructivism where the idea of war aversion – categorically rejecting war as a means to end conflicts – becomes the prevailing norm. Therefore, this article empirically examines how Northeast Asia has sustained its peace through crisis stability and presents a new trend toward general stability.

Type
Articles
Information
Review of International Studies , Volume 42 , Issue 2 , April 2016 , pp. 287 - 309
Copyright
© 2015 British International Studies Association 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

The author would like to thank Bates Gill, Kevin Clements, Chung-in Moon, and Stein Tonnesson for their helpful comments on an early version of this article. Thanks also to Hans Schattle and Joe Phillips provided very meaningful comments on the semi-final version of the manuscript and the three anonymous referees, whose critical feedback comments pushed me to rethink several portions of the argument. The author finally thanks Kun Sik Hong and Do Hyung Kim for their research assistance. Financial support by the East Asia Peace Programme at the Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala University is gratefully acknowledged.

References

1 I define Northeast Asia as a subregion of East Asia that includes Japan, the Korean Peninsula, Taiwan, and China. In this article, the United States of America is treated as an external-regional state.

2 Friedberg, Aaron, ‘Will Europe’s past be Asia’s future?’, Survival, 42:3 (2000), pp. 147–159CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goldgeier, James and McFaul, Michael, ‘A tale of two worlds’, International Organization, 46:2 (1992), pp. 467–492CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Buzan, Barry and Segal, General, ‘Asia: Skepticism about optimism’, The National Interest (1995), pp. 82–84Google Scholar; Friedberg, Aaron, ‘Ripe for rivalry: Prospects for peace in a multipolar Asia’, International Security, 18:3 (1993/4), p. 7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Betts, Richard, ‘Wealth, power, and instability: East Asia and the United States after the Cold War’, International Security, 18:3 (1993/4), p. 34CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Jervis, Robert, ‘Theories of war in an era of leading-power peace’, Presidential Address, American Political Science Association 2001, American Journal of Political Science, 96:1 (March 2002), p. 1Google Scholar.

For literatures on the absence of major war among major states, see Mueller, John, Retreat from Dooms Day: The Obsolescence of Major War (New York: Basic Books, 1989)Google Scholar; Goldgeier, James M. and McFaul, Michael, ‘A tale of two worlds: Core and periphery in the post-Cold War era’, International Organization, 46:1 (1992), pp. 467–491CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Shaw, Martin, Global Society and International Relations (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Duffild, John, ‘Transatlantic relations after the Cold War: Theory, evidence, and the future’, International Studies Perspectives, 2:1 (2001), pp. 93–115Google Scholar.

4 Europe, otherwise known as a stable region of peace, has also suffered from numerous militarised conflicts in areas such as the former Yugoslavia (Bosnia, Kosovo) and, most recently, Ukraine.

5 Svensson, Isak and Lindgren, Mathilda, ‘From bombs to banners? The decline of wars and the rise of unarmed uprisings in East Asia’, Security Dialogue, 42:3 (2011), pp. 219–237CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bitzinger, Richard A. and Desker, Barry, ‘Why East Asian war is unlikely’, Survival, 50:6 (December 2008), pp. 105–128CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kivimaki, Timo, ‘East Asian relative peace – does it exist? What is it?’, The Pacific Review, 23:4 (2010), pp. 503–526CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tonnesson, Stein, ‘What is it that best explains the East Asian Peace since 1979’, Asian Perspective, 33:1 (2009), pp. 111–136Google Scholar; Choi, Jong Kun, ‘Predictions of tragedy vs. tragedy of predictions in Northeast Asian security’, Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, 18:1 (2006), pp. 7–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Wendt, Alexander, ‘On constitution and causation in International Relations’, Review of International Studies, 24:5 (1998), pp. 101–117CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Jervis, Robert, ‘Theories of war in an era of leading-power peace’, Presidential Address, American Political Science Association 2001, American Journal of Political Science, 96:1 (March 2002), p. 1Google Scholar; Gleditsch, Nills Peter, ‘The liberal moment fifteen years on’, ISA Presidential Address, International Studies Quarterly, 52:4 (2008), pp. 691–712CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Blainey, Geoffrey, The Causes of War (3rd edn, New York: the Free Press, 1987), p. 4Google Scholar.

9 Carr, E. H., The Twenty Years of Crisis, 1919–1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (London: Harper Perennial, 1964)Google Scholar.

10 Downding, Keith M. and Kimber, Richard, ‘The meaning and use of “political stability”’, European Journal of Political Research, 11:3 (1983), pp. 229–243Google Scholar.

11 Schelling, Thomas, ‘The retarded science of international strategy’, Midwest Journal of Political Science, 3:2 (1960), p. 131Google Scholar.

12 Kaplan, Mortan, System and Process in International Politics (New York: John Wiley, 1957), p. 7Google Scholar.

13 Waltz, Kenneth, Theory of International Politics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979)Google Scholar; Gilpin, Robert, War and Change in the World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Waltz, Kenneth, ‘The stability of a biploar world’, Daedalus, 93:3 (1964), p. 881Google Scholar; Wohlforth, William C., ‘The stability of a unipolar world’, International Security, 24:1 (1999), p. 8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Lebow, Richard Ned, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crises (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, 1984), pp. 7–12Google Scholar.

16 Schelling, Thomas, Arms and Influence (New Heaven: Yale University, 1966), p. 69Google Scholar.

17 Posen, Barry R., ‘Crisis stability and conventional arms control’, Daedalus, 120:1 (1991), pp. 217–232Google Scholar.

18 Snyder, Glenn, Deterrence and Defense: Towards a Theory of National Security (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1961), pp. 14–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brams, Steven J. and Kilgour, D. Marc, ‘Threat escalation and crisis stability: a game-theoretic analysis’, American Political Science Review, 81:3 (1987), pp. 833–850CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Powell, Robert, ‘Crisis stability in the nuclear age’, American Political Science Review, 83:1 (1989), pp. 61–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Schelling, , Arms and influence, p. 235Google Scholar; Wohlstetter, Albert, ‘The delicate balance of terror’, Foreign Affairs, 37:2 (1959)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: {http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/71454/albert-wohlstetter/the-delicate-balance-of-terror} accessed 2 March 2015.

21 Morgan, Patrick, Deterrence Now (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 Gray, Collin, ‘Deterrence and the nature of strategy’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 11:2 (2000), p. 20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Chassang, Sylvain and Miquel, Gerad Padro, ‘Conflict and deterrence under strategic risk’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125:4 (2011), pp. 1821–1858CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Morgan, Patrick, Deterrence: A Conceptual Analysis (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1977), p. 28Google Scholar.

24 Adler, Emmanuel and Barnett, Michael (eds), Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Adler, Emmanuel, ‘The spread of security communities: Communities of practice, self-restraint, and NATO’s post-Cold War transformation’, European Journal of International Relations, 14:2 (2008), pp. 195–230CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kitchen, Veronica, ‘Argument and identity change in the Atlantic security community’, Security Dialogue, 40:1 (2009), pp. 95–114CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Boas, Morten, ‘Security communities: Whose security?’, Cooperation and Conflict, 35:3 (2000), pp. 309–320CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Williams, Michael J. and Neuman, Iver, ‘From alliance to security community: NATO, Russia, and the power of identity’, Millennium, 29:2 (2000), pp. 357–387Google Scholar.

25 Mueller, John, ‘The essential irreverence of nuclear weapons: Stability in the post world’, International Security, 13:2 (1988), p. 70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Adler, E. and M. Barnett (eds), Security Communities (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 Goldgeier, James M. and McFaul, Michael, ‘A tale of two worlds and periphery in the post-Cold War era’, International Organization, 46:2 (1992), pp. 467–491CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Barnett, Michael and Duvall, Raymond, ‘Power in international politics’, International Organization, 59:1 (2005), pp. 39–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29 Hampton, Mary N., ‘NATO, Germany, and the United States: Creating positive identity in trans-Atlantia’, Security Studies, 8:4 (1998/1999), pp. 235–269CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Risse-Kappen, Thomas, ‘Democratic peace-warlike democracies? A social constructivist interpretation of the liberal argument’, European Journal of International Relations, 1:4 (1995), pp. 491–517CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Sterling-Folker, Jennifer, ‘Compelling paradigms or birds of a feather? Constructivism and neoliberalism compared’, International Studies Quarterly, 44:1 (2000), pp. 97–120CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 Gartzke, Erik and Hewitt, Joseph, ‘International crises and the capitalist peace’, International Interactions, 36:2 (2010), pp. 115–145CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gartzke, Erik, ‘Economic development and peace’, Institute of Public Affairs Review, 57:4 (2005), pp. 29–44Google Scholar; Rosecrance, Richard, ‘Capitalist influence and peace’, International Interactions, 36:2 (2010), pp. 192–198CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Weede, Erich, ‘The diffusion of prosperity and peace by globalization’, The Independent Review, 9:2 (2004), pp. 165–186Google Scholar.

32 Mueller, John, ‘Capitalism, peace and the historical movement of ideas’, International Interactions, 36:2 (2010), pp. 169–184CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 Danilovic, Vesna and Calre, Joe, ‘The Kantian liberal peace (revisited)’, American Journal of Political Science, 51:2 (2007), pp. 397–414Google Scholar.

34 Archer, Clive, ‘The Nordic area as a zone of peace’, Journal of Peace Research, 33:4 (1996), pp. 451–467CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Solingen, Etel, ‘Pax Asiatica versus Bella Levantina: the foundations of war and peace in East Asia and the Middle East’, American Political Science Review, 101:4 (2007), pp. 757–780CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 Deutsch, Karl W., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), p. 5Google Scholar.

37 Martins, Luciano, ‘The liberalization of authoritarian Martins’, in Guillermo O’Donnell et al., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 73Google Scholar.

38 Gunther, Richard, et al., The Political of democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xiiCrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chan, Steve, China, the US, and the Power Transition Theory: A Critique (New York: Routledge, 2008)Google Scholar.

39 Organski, A. F. K., World Politics (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960)Google Scholar; Tammen, Ronald L., Power Transitions: Strategies for the 21st Century (New York: Chatham House, 2000)Google Scholar.

40 Russett, Bruce and Oneal, John R., Triangulating Peace: Democracy, Interdependence and International Organizations (New York: Norton, 2001)Google Scholar; Jervis, Robert, ‘Theories of war in an era of leading-power peace’, American Journal of Political Science, 96:1 (2002), pp. 4–7Google Scholar.

41 Choi, Jong Kun and Moon, Chung-in, ‘Liberal transition in Northeast Asia?’, Mimeo (2010)Google Scholar.

42 Mueller, John, Remnants of War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

43 Ripsman, Norrin M., ‘Two stages of transition from a region of war to a region of peace: Realist transition and liberal endurance’, International Studies Quarterly, 49:4 (2005), pp. 669–693CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44 Choi, Jong Kun and Moon, Chung-in, ‘Understanding Northeast Asian regional dynamics: Inventory checking and new discourses on power, interest, and identity’, International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 10:2 (2010), pp. 343–372CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Stein Tonnesson, ‘Peace by growth as priority’, Paper Presented to the East Asian Peace Program’s First Annual Conference, ‘Democracy and peace in East Asia’, held at the Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala University, 16–18 September 2011.

46 Snyder, Scott (ed.), The US-South Korea Alliance: Meeting New Security Challenges (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Yoo, Hyon Joo, ‘The Korea-US alliance as a source of creeping tension: a Korean perspective’, Asian Perspective, 36:3 (2012), pp. 331–351CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 Bernkopf, Nancy and Glaser, Boonie, ‘Should the United States abandon Taiwan?’, The Washington Quarterly, 34:4 (2011), pp. 23–37Google Scholar; Twomey, Christopher P., The Military Lens: Doctrinal Difference and Deterrence Failure in Sino-American Relations (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

48 Xuetong, Yan, ‘The instability of China-US Relations’, The Chinese Journal of International Politics, 3:3 (2010), pp. 1–30Google Scholar; Johnston, Ian, ‘Stability and instability in Sino-US Relations: a response to Yan Xuetong’s superficial friendship theory’, The Chinese Journal of International Politics, 4:1 (2011), pp. 1–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar

49 Jerdén, Björn and Hagström, Linus, ‘Rethinking Japan's China Policy: Japan as an accommodator in the rise of China, 1978–2011’, Journal of East Asian Studies, 12:2 (2012), pp. 215–250CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fouse, David, ‘Japan’s new defense policy for 2010: Hardening the hedge’, The Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, 23:4 (2011), pp. 489–501Google Scholar.

50 The Ministry of National Defense, ‘The Republic of Korea’, The Defense White Paper (Seoul: Ministry of National Defense, 2010), pp. 28–34.

51 Ibid., pp. 28–34.

52 ‘South Korea deploys cruise missile amid North Korea tensions’, BBC News (19 April 2012), available at: {http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-17766169}.

53 Moon, Chung-in and Lee, Sangkeun, ‘Military spending and the arms race on the Korean Peninsula’, Asian Perspective, 33:4 (2009), pp. 69–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 ‘Why China opposes US-South Korean military exercises in the Yellow Sea’, People’s Daily (19 July 2010).

55 Yuan, General Luo, ‘Why China opposes US-ROK military exercises in the Yellow Sea’, People’s Daily Online (14 July 2010)Google Scholar, available at: {http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90780/91342/7069743.html}.

56 On 23 November 2010, during North Korea’s bombing of Yeonpyong Island, South Korea refrained from retaliating against North Korea with superior air power and precision-guided missiles, as President Lee Myung-bak was worried about escalating the situation into a major, uncontrollable conflict. It was reported that Lee issued a specific order not to escalate the situation. See ‘Cheong, Hwakjeonbang ji Jichim Neryotda’ [Blue House Ordered No Escalation], Hangyoreh (11 December 2010), available at: {http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/politics/defense/453307.html} accessed 27 July 2012.

57 Wachman, Alan, Why Taiwan? Geostrategic Rationales for China’s Territorial Integrity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 Niou, Emerson M. S., ‘Understanding Taiwan independence and its policy implications’, Asian Survey, 44:4 (2004), pp. 555–567CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

59 Hanlon, Michael O’, ‘Why China cannot conquer Taiwan’, International Security, 25:2 (2000), pp. 51–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60 Mearsheimer, John, ‘The gathering storm: China’s challenge to US power in Asia’, Chinese Journal of International Politics, 3:4 (2010), pp. 381–396CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ross, Robert, ‘China’s naval nationalism: Sources, prospects, and the U.S response’, International Security, 34:2 (2009), pp.46–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Qi, Xu, ‘Maritime geostrategy and the development of the Chinese Navy in the early twenty-first century’, trans. Andrew S. Erickson and Lyle J. Goldstein, Naval War College Review, 59:4 (2006), pp. 47–67Google Scholar (p. 53); McVadon, Eric A., ‘China’s maturing navy’; Andrew S. Erickson, Lyle J. Goldstein, William S. Murray, and Andrew R. Wilson (eds), China’s Future Nuclear Submarine Force (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2007), p. 4Google Scholar.

61 Office of the Secretary of Defense, ‘Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China, 2013’ (Washington, DC: US Department of Defense, 2013).

62 McDevitt, Michael and Vellucci, Frederic, Jr, ‘The evolution of the People’s Liberation Army Navy: The twin missions of area-denial and peacetime operations’, in Geoffrey Till and Patrick C. Bratton (eds), Sea Power and the Asia-Pacific: The Triumph of Neptune? (New York: Routledge 2012), pp. 75–92Google Scholar (p. 81).

63 ‘China’s Ballistic Missile, Stealth Fighter Advances Draw Attention of US’, Bloomberg (27 July 2012), available at: {http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-01-05/china-s-ballistic-missile-stealth-fighter-advances-draw-attention-of-u-s-.html} accessed 6 January 2011.

64 Clinton, Hilary, ‘America’s Pacific Century’, Foreign Policy (November 2011)Google Scholar, available at: {http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/10/11/}; US Department of Defense, ‘Sustaining US Leadership: Priorities for 21st Century Defense’ (5 January 2012), available at: {http://www.defense.gov/news/Defense_Strategic_Guidance.pdf}, p. 2; Miere, Christian le, ‘America’s pivot to Asia: the naval dimension’, Survival, 54:3 (2012), pp. 81–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Friedberg, Aaron, A Contest For Supremacy: China, America and the Struggle for Mastery in Asia (New York: Norton, 2011)Google Scholar.

66 Xinbo, Wu, ‘Not backing down: China responds to the US rebalance to Asia’, Global Asia, 7:4 (2012), pp. 18–21Google Scholar; Ross, Robert, ‘The US-China Peace: Great power politics, sphere of influence, and the peace of East Asia’, Journal of East Asian Studies, 3 (2003), pp. 351–375CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

67 Pempel, T. J. (eds), The Economy-Security Nexus in Northeast Asia (New York: Routledge, 2012)Google Scholar; Calder, Kent and Min Ye (eds), The Making of Northeast Asia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

68 Kim, Min-Hyung, ‘Why does a small power lead? ASEAN leadership in Asia-Pacific regionalism’, Pacific Focus, 27:1 (2012), pp. 111–134CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Acharya, Amitav, Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia: ASEAN and the Problem of Regional Order (New York: Routledge, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

69 Donegan, Brendan, ‘Governmental regionalism: Power, knowledge and neoliberal regional integration in Asia and Latin America’, Millennium: Journal of International studies, 35:1 (2006), pp. 23–51Google Scholar.

70 Liu, Fu-Kuo, ‘East Asian regionalism: Theoretical perspective’, in Fu-Kuo Liu and Philippe Regnier (eds), Regionalism in East Asia: Paradigm Shifting? (London: Routledge, 2003), pp. 4–29Google Scholar.

71 Originally cited in ‘East Asian regionalism’, p. 21; Severino, Rodolfo, ‘The ASEAN way in Manila’, Far Eastern Economic Review (1999), p. 27Google Scholar.

72 Frost, Ellen L., Asia’s New Regionalism (London: Lynne Rienner, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mahbubani, Kishore, The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to the East (New York: Pubic Affairs, 2008)Google Scholar; Overholt, William, Asia, America, and the Transformation of Geopolitics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008)Google Scholar.

73 Chung, Eun Sook, ‘Six-Party Talks, Kim Jong Un, North Korea, nuclear problem, multilateral security cooperation’, Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, 5:1 (2013), pp. 1 –15Google Scholar; Ki-Joon, Hong, ‘The Six-Party Talks in the post-Kim Jong-il era: an emergent path toward a Northeast Asian security mechanism’, North Korean Review, 8:2 (2012), pp. 111–126Google Scholar.

74 Rozman, Gilbert, ‘Turning the Six-Party Talks into a multilateral security framework for Northeast Asia’, in KEI 2008 Towards Sustainable Economic & Security Relations in East Asia: U.S. and ROK Policy Options, Joint U.S.-Korea Academic Studies, 18 (2008), pp. 149–166Google Scholar.

75 Choi, Jong Kun, ‘Bolstering economic interdependence despite bullying memories in Northeast Asia’, in T. J. Pempel (ed.), The Economy-Security Nexus in Northeast Asia (New York: Routledge, 2012)Google Scholar, ch. 5.

76 Hamanak, Shintaro, ‘Is trade in Asia really integrating?’, ADB Working Paper Series on Regional Economic Integration, 91 (2012)Google Scholar.

77 Lee, Hyun-Hoon, Huh, Hyeon-Seung, and Park, Donghyun, ‘Financial integration in East Asia: an empirical investigation’, The World Economy, 36:4 (2013), pp. 396–418CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 For an analysis that shows the statistical salience of economic interdependence in East Asia, see Goldstein, Benjamin E., ‘A liberal peace in Asia?’, Journal of Peace Research, 44:1 (2007), pp. 5–27Google Scholar.

79 Pempel, T. J. (ed.), The Economy-Security Nexus in Northeast Asia, p. 10Google Scholar.

80 ‘South Korea, China Agree on Outline of Free-Trade Deal’, Wall Street Journal (10 November 2014), available at: {http://www.wsj.com/articles/south-korea-china-agree-on-free-trade-deal-1415588514} accessed 23 February 2015.

81 Acharya, Amitav, ‘Engagement or entrapment? Scholarship and policymaking on Asian regionalism’, International Studies Review, 13:1 (2011), pp. 12–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Evans, Peter, ‘Between regionalism and regionalization: Policy networks and the nascent East Asian institutional identity’, in T. J. Pempel (ed.), Remapping East Asia: The Construction of a Region (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), pp. 195–215Google Scholar.

82 The Center for Strategic and International Studies, ‘Strategic Views on Asian Regionalism: Survey Results and Analysis 2009’ (Washington, DC: CSIS, 2009).

83 Chicago Council on Global Affairs, ‘Soft Power in Asia: Results of a 2008 Multinational Survey of Public Opinion: Asia Soft Power Survey 2008’ (Chicago: Chicago Council on Global Affairs, 2008).

84 Jhee, Byong-Kuen, ‘Public support for regional integration in Northeast Asia: an empirical test of affective and utilitarian model’, International Political Science Review, 30:1 (2009), pp. 49–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

85 The World Value Survey (2010–14) finds that 60.6 per cent of the Chinese respondents see themselves as ‘Asian’ while 72.2 per cent of the Korean respondents see themselves as ‘Northeast Asian’. The survey does not report the Japanese data. See V215_07 for Korea and V215_14 for China in World Survey Wave 6: 2010–14, An On-Line Data Set, available at: {http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp}.

86 The survey result can be found at ‘How Asians View Each Other’, available at: {http://www.pewglobal.org/2014/07/14/chapter-4-how-asians-view-each-other/}.

87 Cho, Il Hyun and Park, Seo-Hyun. ‘Anti-Chinese and Anti-Japanese sentiments in East Asia: the politics of opinion, distrust, and prejudice’, The Chinese Journal of International Politics, 4:3 (2011), pp. 265–290CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Choi, Jong Kun, ‘Can Japan engage Northeast Asia? Overcoming perceptual and strategic deficits’, in Purnendra Jain and Brad Williams (eds), Japan in Decline, Fact or Fiction? (Kent, UK: Global Oriental, 2011), pp. 129–144Google Scholar.

88 Choi, Jong Kun, ‘Sunshine over a barren soil: the domestic politics of engagement identity formation in South Korea’, Asian Perspective, 34:4 (2010), pp. 115–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moon, Chung-in, The Sunshine Policy: In Defense of Engagement as a Path to Peace in Korea (Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 2012)Google Scholar.