Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T18:54:28.492Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Why do anxious children become depressed teenagers? The role of social evaluative threat and reward processing

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 February 2012

J. S. Silk ,
S. Davis ,
D. L. McMakin ,
R. E. Dahl  and
E. E. Forbes
J. S. Silk*
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh, Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
S. Davis
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh, Department of Psychology, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
D. L. McMakin
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh, Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
R. E. Dahl
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley, School of Public Health, Berkeley, CA, USA
E. E. Forbes
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh, Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: J. S. Silk, Ph.D., Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Depression is a leading cause of worldwide disability. Adolescence represents a key developmental window in which rates of this disorder increase markedly. Children with an anxiety disorder show a particular risk of developing depression during adolescence.

Method

We present and review evidence for a developmental model that considers the intersection of two vulnerabilities relevant to the trajectory from anxiety to depression: difficulties in response to potential social evaluation and changes in reward processing at puberty.

Results

Evidence suggests that these vulnerabilities (a) have been associated with depression, (b) are likely to be problematic in many, but not all, anxious youth, and (c) may be exacerbated by maturational processes that occur around pubertal development in ways that can create a negative spiral into a depressive disorder.

Conclusions

We discuss the possibility that early intervention strategies targeting key aspects of these vulnerabilities could alter the trajectory away from depression for many anxious youth.

Keywords

Adolescenceanxietydepressionpubertyrewardthreat
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 42 , Issue 10 , October 2012 , pp. 2095 - 2107
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abela, JR, Hankin, BL, Haigh, EA, Adams, P, Vinokuroff, T, Trayhern, L (2005). Interpersonal vulnerability to depression in high-risk children: the role of insecure attachment and reassurance seeking. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 34, 182–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adler, PA, Adler, P (1998). Peer Power. Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, NJ.Google Scholar
Alfano, CA, Beidel, DC, Turner, SM (2006). Cognitive correlates of social phobia among children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 34, 189–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, JP, Insabella, G, Porter, MR, Smith, FD, Land, D, Phillips, N (2006). A social-interactional model of the development of depressive symptoms in adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 74, 55–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, NB, Badcock, PB (2003). The social risk hypothesis of depressed mood: evolutionary, psychosocial, and neurobiological perspectives. Psychological Bulletin 129, 887–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, ER, Veed, GJ, Inderbitzen-Nolan, HM, Hansen, DJ (2010). An evaluation of the applicability of the tripartite constructs to social anxiety in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 39, 195–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angold, A, Costello, EJ, Worthman, CM (1998). Puberty and depression: the roles of age, pubertal status and pubertal timing. Psychological Medicine 28, 51–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y, Fox, NA, Benson, B, Guyer, AE, Williams, A, Nelson, EE, Perez-Edgar, K, Pine, DS, Ernst, M (2009). Neural correlates of reward processing in adolescents with a history of inhibited temperament. Psychological Science 20, 1009–1018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y, Lamy, D, Pergamin, L, Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ, van Ijzendoorn, MH (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin 133, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnett, PA, Gotlib, IH (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin 104, 97–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrett, PM, Rapee, RM, Dadds, MM, Ryan, SM (1996). Family enhancement of cognitive style in anxious and aggressive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 24, 187–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, RF, Leary, MR (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin 117, 497–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beesdo, K, Lau, JY, Guyer, AE, McClure-Tone, EB, Monk, CS, Nelson, EE, Fromm, SJ, Goldwin, MA, Wittchen, H-U, Leibenluft, E, Ernst, M, Pine, DS (2009). Common and distinct amygdala-function perturbations in depressed vs anxious adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 275–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berenbaum, H, Connelly, J (1993). The effect of stress on hedonic capacity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 102, 474–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjork, JM, Knutson, B, Fong, GW, Caggiano, DM, Bennett, SM, Hommer, DW (2004). Incentive-elicited brain activation in adolescents: similarities and differences from young adults. Journal of Neuroscience 24, 1793–1802.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjork, JM, Smith, AR, Chen, G, Hommer, DW (2010). Adolescents, adults and rewards: comparing motivational neurocircuitry recruitment using fMRI. PLoS One 5, e11440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogdan, R, Pizzagalli, DA (2006). Acute stress reduces reward responsiveness: implications for depression. Biological Psychiatry 60, 1147–1154.Google ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J (1969). Attachment and Loss. Vol. 1: Attachment. Basic Books: New York.Google Scholar
Brady, EU, Kendall, PC (1992). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents. Psychological Bulletin 111, 244–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Britton, JC, Lissek, S, Grillon, C, Norcross, MA, Pine, DS (2011). Development of anxiety: the role of threat appraisal and fear learning. Depression and Anxiety 28, 5–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, BB (2004). Adolescents' relationships with peers. In Handbook of Adolescent Psychology , 2nd edn (ed. Lerner, R. M. and Steinberg, L. D.), pp. 363–394. Wiley: Hoboken, NJ.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, GW, Harris, TO (1978). Social Origins of Depression: A Study of Psychiatric Disorder in Women. Tavistock: London, UK.Google Scholar
Brown, GW, Harris, TO (1989). Stressful Life Events and Illness. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Bryant, FB, Veroff, J (2006). Savoring: A New Model of Positive Experience. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ.Google Scholar
Chorpita, BF (2002). The tripartite model and dimensions of anxiety and depression: an examination of structure in a large school sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 30, 177–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chorpita, BF, Albano, AM, Barlow, DH (1996). Cognitive processing in children: relation to anxiety and family influences. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 25, 170–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chorpita, BF, Plummer, C, Moffitt, CE (2000). Relations of tripartite dimensions of emotion to childhood anxiety and mood disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 28, 299–310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D (1993). Developmental psychopathology: reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review 13, 471–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D, Toth, SL (1998). The development of depression in children and adolescents. American Psychologist 53, 221–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, LA, Watson, D (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100, 316–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connolly, J, Furman, W, Konarski, R (2000). The role of peers in the emergence of heterosexual romantic relationships in adolescence. Child Development 71, 1395–1408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connolly, J, Geller, S, Marton, P, Kutcher, S (1992). Peer responses to social interaction with depressed adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 21, 365–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coyne, JC (1976). Depression and the response of others. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 85, 186–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Creswell, C, Schniering, CA, Rapee, RM (2005). Threat interpretation in anxious children and their mothers: comparison with nonclinical children and the effects of treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy 43, 1375–1381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cyranowski, JM, Frank, E, Young, E, Shear, MK (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression: a theoretical model. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 21–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahl, RE (2001). Affect regulation, brain development, and behavioral/emotional health in adolescence. CNS Spectrums 6, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dalgleish, T, Moradi, A, Taghavi, M, Neshat-Doost, H, Yule, W (2001). An experimental investigation of hypervigilance for threat in children and adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine 31, 541–547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davey, CG, Yucel, M, Allen, NB (2008). The emergence of depression in adolescence: development of the prefrontal cortex and the representation of reward. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 32, 1–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, SS, Kemeny, ME (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: a theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin 130, 355–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisner, LR, Johnson, SL, Carver, CS (2009). Positive affect regulation in anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23, 645–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eley, T, Sugden, K, Corsico, A, Gregory, A, Sham, P, McGuffin, P, Plomin, R, Craig, I (2004). Gene-environment interaction analysis of serotonin system markers with adolescent depression. Molecular Psychiatry 9, 908–915.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, J, Pan, H, Kocsis, JH, Yang, Y, Butler, T, Chusid, J, Hochberg, H, Murrough, J, Strohmayer, E, Stern, E, Silbersweig, DA (2006). Lack of ventral striatal response to positive stimuli in depressed versus normal subjects. American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 1784–1790.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ernst, M, Nelson, EE, Jazbec, S, McClure, EB, Monk, CS, Leibenluft, E, Blair, J, Pine, DS (2005). Amygdala and nucleus accumbens in responses to receipt and omission of gains in adults and adolescents. NeuroImage 25, 1279–1291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ernst, M, Romeo, RD, Andersen, SL (2009). Neurobiology of the development of motivated behaviors in adolescence: a window into a neural systems model. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 93, 199–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fliessbach, K, Weber, B, Trautner, P, Dohmen, T, Sunde, U, Elger, C, Falk, A (2007). Social comparison affects reward-related brain activity in the human ventral striatum. Science 318, 1305–1308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forbes, EE (2009). Where's the fun in that? Broadening the focus on reward function in depression. Biological Psychiatry 66, 199–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forbes, EE, Dahl, RE (2005). Neural systems of positive affect: relevance to understanding child and adolescent depression? Development and Psychopathology 17, 827–850.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forbes, EE, Hariri, AR, Martin, SL, Silk, JS, Moyles, DL, Fisher, PM, Brown, SM, Ryan, ND, Birmaher, B, Axelson, DA, Dahl, RE (2009). Altered striatal activation predicting real-world positive affect in adolescent major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 166, 64–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forbes, EE, May, CJ, Siegle, GJ, Ladouceur, CD, Ryan, ND, Carter, CS, Birmaher, B, Axelson, DA, Dahl, RE (2006). Reward-related decision-making in pediatric major depressive disorder: an fMRI study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 47, 1031–1040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forbes, EE, Phillips, ML, Silk, JS, Ryan, ND, Dahl, RE (2011). Neural systems of threat processing in adolescents: role of pubertal maturation and relation to measures of negative affect. Developmental Neuropsychology 36, 429–452.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forbes, EE, Ryan, ND, Phillips, ML, Manuck, SB, Worthman, CM, Moyles, DL, Tarr, JA, Sciarrillo, SR, Dahl, RE (2010). Healthy adolescents' neural response to reward: associations with puberty, positive affect, and depressive symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 49, 162–72.e1-5.Google ScholarPubMed
Forbes, EE, Shaw, DS, Dahl, RE (2007). Alterations in reward-related decision making in boys with recent and future depression. Biological Psychiatry 61, 633–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forbes, EE, Williamson, DE, Ryan, ND, Dahl, RE (2004). Positive and negative affect in depression: influence of sex and puberty. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021, 341–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franic, S, Middeldorp, CM, Dolan, CV, Ligthart, L, Boomsma, DI (2010). Childhood and adolescent anxiety and depression: beyond heritability. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 49, 820–829.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frewen, PA, Dozois, DJ, Joanisse, MF, Neufeld, RW (2008). Selective attention to threat versus reward: meta-analysis and neural-network modeling of the dot-probe task. Clinical Psychology Review 28, 307–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galambos, NL, Leadbeater, BJ, Barker, ET (2004). Gender differences in and risk factors for depression in adolescence: a 4-year longitudinal study. International Journal of Behavioral Development 28, 16–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galvan, A (2010). Adolescent development of the reward system. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 4, 6.Google ScholarPubMed
Galvan, A, Hare, TA, Parra, CE, Penn, J, Voss, K, Glover, G, Casey, B (2006). Earlier development of the accumbens relative to orbitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents. Journal of Neuroscience 26, 6885–6892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, M, Steinberg, L (2005). Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: an experimental study. Developmental Psychology 41, 625–635.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, P (1992). Depression: The Evolution of Powerlessness. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Goldin, PR, Manber, T, Hakimi, S, Canli, T, Gross, JJ (2009). Neural bases of social anxiety disorder: emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation during social and physical threat. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 170–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guyer, AE, Lau, JY, McClure-Tone, EB, Parrish, J, Shiffrin, ND, Reynolds, RC, Chen, G, Blair, R, Leibenluft, E, Fox, NA, Ernst, M, Pine, DS, Nelson, EE (2008 a). Amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex function during anticipated peer evaluation in pediatric social anxiety. Archives of General Psychiatry 65, 1303–1312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guyer, AE, McClure-Tone, EB, Shiffrin, ND, Pine, DS, Nelson, EE (2009). Probing the neural correlates of anticipated peer evaluation in adolescence. Child Development 80, 1000–1015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guyer, AE, Monk, CS, McClure-Tone, EB, Nelson, EE, Roberson-Nay, R, Adler, AD, Fromm, SJ, Leibenluft, E, Pine, DS, Ernst, M (2008 b). A developmental examination of amygdala response to facial expressions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 20, 1565–1582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guyer, AE, Nelson, EE, Perez-Edgar, K, Hardin, MG, Roberson-Nay, R, Monk, CS, Bjork, JM, Henderson, HA, Pine, DS, Fox, NA, Ernst, M (2006). Striatal functional alteration in adolescents characterized by early childhood behavioral inhibition. Journal of Neuroscience 26, 6399–6405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C, Brennan, PA (2001). Depressed adolescents of depressed and nondepressed mothers: tests of an interpersonal impairment hypothesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 69, 284–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C, Brennan, PA, Keenan-Miller, D (2008). Patterns of adolescent depression to age 20: the role of maternal depression and youth interpersonal dysfunction. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 36, 1189–1198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C, Shih, JH, Brennan, PA (2004). Intergenerational transmission of depression: test of an interpersonal stress model in a community sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 72, 511–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hare, TA, Tottenham, N, Galvan, A, Voss, HU, Glover, GH, Casey, BJ (2008). Biological substrates of emotional reactivity and regulation in adolescence during an emotional go-nogo task. Biological Psychiatry 63, 927–934.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harter, S, Whitesell, NR (1996). Multiple pathways to self-reported depression and psychological adjustment among adolescents. Development and Psychopathology 8, 761–777.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollerman, JR, Schultz, W (1998). Dopamine neurons report an error in the temporal prediction of reward during learning. Nature Neuroscience 1, 304–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horowitz, JL, Garber, J (2006). The prevention of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 74, 401–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacques, HA, Mash, EJ (2004). A test of the tripartite model of anxiety and depression in elementary and high school boys and girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 32, 13–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jazbec, S, McClure, E, Hardin, M, Pine, DS, Ernst, M (2005). Cognitive control under contingencies in anxious and depressed adolescents: an antisaccade task. Biological Psychiatry 58, 632–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joiner, TE Jr., Blalock, JA, Wagner, KD (1999). Preliminary examination of sex differences in depressive symptoms among adolescent psychiatric inpatients: the role of anxious symptoms and generalized negative affect. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 28, 211–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joiner, TE Jr., Metalsky, GI (1995). A prospective test of an integrative interpersonal theory of depression: a naturalistic study of college roommates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, 778–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahneman, D, Beatty, J (1966). Pupil diameter and load on memory. Science 154, 1583–1585.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahneman, D, Tversky, A (1995). Conflict resolution: a cognitive perspective. In Barriers to Conflict Resolution (ed. Arrow, K., Mnookin, R. H., Ross, L., Tversky, A. and Wilson, R.), pp. 44–61. Norton: New York.Google Scholar
Kashdan, TB, Steger, MF (2006). Expanding the topography of social anxiety. An experience-sampling assessment of positive emotions, positive events, and emotion suppression. Psychological Science 17, 120–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J, Yang, B-Z, Douglas-Palumberi, H, Grasso, D, Lipschitz, D, Houshyar, S, Krystal, JH, Gelernter, J (2006). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor-5-HTTLPR gene interactions and environmental modifiers of depression in children. Biological Psychiatry 59, 673–680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keedwell, PA, Andrew, C, Williams, SC, Brammer, MJ, Phillips, ML (2005). A double dissociation of ventromedial prefrontal cortical responses to sad and happy stimuli in depressed and healthy individuals. Biological Psychiatry 58, 495–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Kuhn, JW, Vittum, J, Prescott, CA, Riley, B (2005). The interaction of stressful life events and a serotonin transporter polymorphism in the prediction of episodes of major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 529–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, RC (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Study. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 8–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, RC, Avenevoli, S, Merikangas, KR (2001). Mood disorders in children and adolescents: an epidemiologic perspective. Biological Psychiatry 49, 1002–1014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killgore, WD, Yurgelun-Todd, DA (2005). Social anxiety predicts amygdala activation in adolescents viewing fearful faces. Neuroreport 16, 1671–1675.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killgore, WD, Yurgelun-Todd, DA (2006). Ventromedial prefrontal activity correlates with depressed mood in adolescent children. Neuroreport 17, 167–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killgore, WD, Yurgelun-Todd, DA (2007). Unconscious processing of facial affect in children and adolescents. Social Neuroscience 2, 28–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kovacs, M, Gatsonis, C, Paulauskas, SL, Richards, C (1989). Depressive disorders in childhood. IV. A longitudinal study of comorbidity with and risk for anxiety disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 46, 776–782.Google Scholar
Ladouceur, CD, Dahl, RE, Williamson, DE, Birmaher, B, Axelson, DA, Ryan, ND, Casey, BJ (2006). Processing emotional facial expressions influences performance in a Go/NoGo task in pediatric anxiety and depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 47, 1107–1115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
La Greca, AM, Lopez, N (1998). Social anxiety among adolescents: linkage with peer relations and friendships. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 26, 83–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larson, RW, Asmussen, L (1991). Anger, worry, and hurt in early adolescence: an enlarging world of negative emotions. In Adolescent Stress: Causes and Consequences (ed. Colten, M. E. and Gore, S.), pp. 21–41. Aldine de Gruyter: Hawthorne, NY.Google Scholar
Lau, JYF, Eley, TC (2008). Disentangling gene-environment correlations and interactions on adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 49, 142–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawrence, NS, Williams, AM, Surguladze, S, Giampietro, V, Brammer, MJ, Andrew, C, Frangou, S, Ecker, C, Phillips, ML (2004). Subcortical and ventral prefrontal cortical neural responses to facial expressions distinguish patients with bipolar disorder and major depression. Biological Psychiatry 55, 578–587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leadbeater, BJ, Blatt, SJ, Quinlan, DM (1995). Gender-linked vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms, stress, and problem behaviors in adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence 5, 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, A, Hankin, BL, Mermelstein, RJ (2010). Perceived social competence, negative social interactions, and negative cognitive style predict depressive symptoms during adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 39, 603–615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, PM, Allen, NB, Seeley, JR, Gotlib, IH (1999). First onset versus recurrence of depression: differential processes of psychosocial risk. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 108, 483–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lonigan, CJ, Hooe, ES, David, CF, Kistner, JA (1999). Positive and negative affectivity in children: confirmatory factor analysis of a two-factor model and its relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 67, 374–386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lonigan, CJ, Phillips, BM, Hooe, ES (2003). Relations of positive and negative affectivity to anxiety and depression in children: evidence from a latent variable longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71, 465–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malkesman, O, Braw, Y, Zagoory-Sharon, O, Golan, O, Lavi-Avnon, Y, Schroeder, M, Overstreet, D, Yadid, G, Weller, A (2005). Reward and anxiety in genetic animal models of childhood depression. Behavioural Brain Research 164, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, CA, Kelly, TH, Rayens, MK, Brogli, BR, Brenzel, A, Smith, WJ, Omar, HA (2002). Sensation seeking, puberty and nicotine, alcohol and marijuana use in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41, 1495–1502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maslow, AH (1987). Motivation and Personality. Addison-Wesley: New York.Google Scholar
Masten, CL, Eisenberger, NI, Borofsky, LA, McNealy, K, Pfeifer, JH, Dapretto, M (2011). Subgenual anterior cingulate responses to peer rejection: a marker of adolescents' risk for depression. Development and Psychopathology 23, 283–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, CL, Eisenberger, NI, Borofsky, LA, Pfeifer, JH, McNealy, K, Mazziotta, JC, Dapretto, M (2009). Neural correlates of social exclusion during adolescence: understanding the distress of peer rejection. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 4, 143–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClure, EB, Monk, CS, Nelson, EE, Parrish, JM, Adler, A, Blair, R, Fromm, S, Charney, DS, Leibenluft, E, Ernst, M, Pine, DS (2007 a). Abnormal attention modulation of fear circuit function in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 97–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClure, EB, Parrish, JM, Nelson, EE, Easter, J, Thorne, JF, Rilling, JK, Ernst, M, Pine, DS (2007 b). Responses to conflict and cooperation in adolescents with anxiety and mood disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 35, 567–577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClure-Tone, EB, Nawa, NE, Nelson, EE, Detloff, AM, Fromm, SJ, Pine, DS, Ernst, M (2011). Preliminary findings: neural responses to feedback regarding betrayal and cooperation in adolescent anxiety disorders. Developmental Neuropsychology 36, 453–472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McMakin, DL, Siegle, GJ, Shirk, SR (2011). Positive Affect Stimulation and Sustainment (PASS) module for depressed mood: a preliminary investigation of treatment-related effects. Cognitive Therapy and Research 35, 217–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Messer, SC, Gross, AM (1995). Childhood depression and family interaction: a naturalistic observation study. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 24, 77–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monk, CS, Klein, RG, Telzer, EH, Schroth, EA, Mannuzza, S, Moulton, JL III, Guardino, M, Masten, CL, McClure, T, Fromm, S, Blair, R, Pine, DS, Ernst, M (2008 a). Amygdala and nucleus accumbens activation to emotional facial expressions in children and adolescents at risk for major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 165, 90–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monk, CS, McClure, EB, Nelson, EE, Zarahn, E, Bilder, RM, Leibenluft, E, Charney, DS, Ernst, M, Pine, DS (2003). Adolescent immaturity in attention-related brain engagement to emotional facial expressions. NeuroImage 20, 420–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monk, CS, Telzer, EH, Mogg, K, Bradley, BP, Mai, X, Louro, HM, Chen, G, McClure-Tone, EB, Ernst, M, Pine, DS (2008 b). Amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation to masked angry faces in children and adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 65, 568–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, EE, Leibenluft, E, McClure, E, Pine, DS (2005). The social re-orientation of adolescence: a neuroscience perspective on the process and its relation to psychopathology. Psychological Medicine 35, 163–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nolan, SA, Flynn, C, Garber, J (2003). Prospective relations between rejection and depression in young adolescents. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85, 745–755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nolen-Hoeksema, S (1994). An interactive model for the emergence of gender differences in depression in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence 4, 519–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsson, GI, Nordstrom, M-L, Arinell, H, von Knorring, A-L (1999). Adolescent depression: social network and family climate: a case-control study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 227–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orvaschel, H, Lewinsohn, PM, Seeley, JR (1995). Continuity of psychopathology in a community sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34, 1525–1535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patton, GC, Viner, R (2007). Pubertal transitions in health. Lancet 369, 1130–1139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pine, DS, Cohen, P, Gurley, D, Brook, J, Ma, Y (1998). The risk for early-adulthood anxiety and depressive disorders in adolescents with anxiety and depressive disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 55, 56–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, J, Sloman, L, Gardner, R Jr., Gilbert, P, Rohde, P (1994). The social competition hypothesis of depression. British Journal of Psychiatry 164, 309–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prinstein, MJ, Aikins, JW (2004). Cognitive moderators of the longitudinal association between peer rejection and adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 32, 147–158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roemer, L, Salters, K, Raffa, SD, Orsillo, SM (2005). Fear and avoidance of internal experiences in GAD: preliminary tests of a conceptual model. Cognitive Therapy and Research 29, 71–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rolls, ET (1999). The Brain and Emotion. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Rose, AJ, Rudolph, KD (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin 132, 98–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, KD (2002). Gender differences in emotional responses to interpersonal stress during adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health 30, 3–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, KD, Conley, CS (2005). The socioemotional costs and benefits of social-evaluative concerns: do girls care too much? Journal of Personality 73, 115–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlund, MW, Siegle, GJ, Ladouceur, CD, Silk, JS, Cataldo, MF, Forbes, EE, Dahl, RE, Ryan, ND (2010). Nothing to fear? Neural systems supporting avoidance behavior in healthy youths. NeuroImage 52, 710–719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, W (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology 80, 1–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeds, PM, Harkness, KL, Quilty, LC (2010). Parental maltreatment, bullying, and adolescent depression: evidence for the mediating role of perceived social support. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 39, 681–692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheeber, L, Sorensen, E (1998). Family relationships of depressed adolescents: a multimethod assessment. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 27, 268–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheppard, LC, Teasdale, JD (1996). Depressive thinking: changes in schematic mental models of self and world. Psychological Medicine 26, 1043–1055.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silberg, J, Rutter, M, Neale, M, Eaves, L (2001). Genetic moderation of environmental risk for depression and anxiety in adolescent girls. British Journal of Psychiatry 179, 116–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silk, JS, Siegle, GJ, Whalen, DJ, Ostapenko, L, Ladouceur, CD, Dahl, RE (2009). Pubertal changes in emotional information processing: pupillary, behavioral, and subjective evidence during emotional word identification. Development and Psychopathology 21, 7–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silk, JS, Stroud, LR, Siegle, GJ, Dahl, RE, Lee, KH, Nelson, EE (2012). Peer acceptance and rejection through the eyes of youth: pupillary, eyetracking, and ecological data from the Chatroom Interact Task. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 7, 93–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sisk, CL, Foster, DL (2004). The neural basis of puberty and adolescence. Nature Neuroscience 7, 1040–1047.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spear, LP (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24, 417–463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spear, LP (2011). Rewards, aversions and affect in adolescence: emerging convergences across laboratory animal and human data. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1, 390–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L (1988). Reciprocal relation between parent-child distance and pubertal maturation. Developmental Psychology 24, 122–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinberg, L (2007). Risk-taking in adolescence: new perspectives from brain and behavioral science. Current Directions in Psychological Science 16, 55–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinberg, L, Albert, D, Cauffman, E, Banich, M, Graham, S, Woolard, J (2008). Age differences in sensation seeking and impulsivity as indexed by behavior and self-report: evidence for a dual systems model. Developmental Psychology 44, 1764–1778.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Surguladze, S, Brammer, MJ, Keedwell, P, Giampietro, V, Young, AW, Travis, MJ, Williams, SCR, Phillips, ML (2005). A differential pattern of neural response toward sad versus happy facial expressions in major depressive disorder. Biological Psychiatry 57, 201–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taghavi, MR, Neshat-Doost, HT, Moradi, AR, Yule, W, Dalgleish, T (1999). Biases in visual attention in children and adolescents with clinical anxiety and mixed anxiety-depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 27, 215–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Telzer, EH, Mogg, K, Bradley, BP, Mai, X, Ernst, M, Pine, DS, Monk, CS (2008). Relationship between trait anxiety, prefrontal cortex, and attention bias to angry faces in children and adolescents. Biological Psychology 79, 216–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, KM, Drevets, WC, Dahl, RE, Ryan, ND, Birmaher, B, Eccard, CH, Axelson, D, Whalen, PJ, Casey, BJ (2001). Amygdala response to fearful faces in anxious and depressed children. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 1057–1063.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turk, CL, Heimberg, RG, Luterek, JA, Mennin, DS, Fresco, DM (2005). Emotion dysregulation in generalized anxiety disorder: a comparison with social anxiety disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 29, 89–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasey, MW, El-Hag, N, Daleiden, EL (1996). Anxiety and the processing of emotionally threatening stimuli: distinctive patterns of selective attention among high- and low-test-anxious children. Child Development 67, 1173–1185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wahlstrom, D, Collins, P, White, T, Luciana, M (2010). Developmental changes in dopamine neurotransmission in adolescence: behavioral implications and issues in assessment. Brain and Cognition 72, 146–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, MM, Fendrich, M, Warner, V, Wickramaratne, P (1992). Incidence of psychiatric disorder in offspring at high and low risk for depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31, 640–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, MM, Wickramaratne, P, Nomura, Y, Warner, V, Verdeli, H, Pilowsky, DJ, Grillon, C, Bruder, G (2005). Families at high and low risk for depression: a 3-generation study. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 29–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, J, Mathews, A, MacLeod, C (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin 120, 3–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willner, P (2005). Chronic mild stress (CMS) revisited: consistency and behavioural-neurobiological concordance in the effects of CMS. Neuropsychobiology 52, 90–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wise, RA (2004). Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 5, 483–494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zacharko, RM, Bowers, WJ, Kokkinidis, L, Anisman, H (1983). Region-specific reductions of intracranial self-stimulation after uncontrollable stress: possible effects on reward processes. Behavioural Brain Research 9, 129–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed