Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T19:04:19.791Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reassessing San Estevan's Role in the Late Formative Political Geography of Northern Belize

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Robert M. Rosenswig  and
Douglas J. Kennett
Robert M. Rosenswig
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, The University at Albany - SUNY, 1400 Washington Ave., Albany, New York, 12222 (email: [email protected])
Douglas J. Kennett
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon. Eugene, OR. 97403
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We reassess San Estevan's role within the Late Formative period political geography of northern Belize. This medium-sized site has been interpreted as a subsidiary center to Nohmul that ruled the area along with Cerros, Lamanai, and Colha (Scarborough 1991). It has also been suggested that scores of autonomous polities existed in the region at this time (McAnany 1995). We examine these contrasting models in light of our recent excavations in the central precinct of San Estevan. These excavations reveal a stratigraphic sequence of Middle through Late Formative period deposits. Excavations document that the central part of the site was plastered over after 50 cal. B.C.—at roughly the same time as monumental construction projects were also started at Cerros, Nohmul, and Lamanai. San Estevan's central Mound XV was built on these plaster surfaces during the Late Formative period as was the adjacent ballcourt. Based on our new excavation data we suggest that San Estevan was an independent polity during the Late Formative period. Further, we propose that San Estevan competed, and engaged in warfare, with other medium and large regional centers and was one of ~12 independent polities forming a political patchwork across northern Belize.

Resumen

Resumen

Redefinimos el rol de San Estevan dentro del período Formativo Tardío en el norte de Belice. Este sitio ha sido interpretado como un centro subsidiario en la esfera política de Nohmul que gobernó el norte de Belice junto a Cerros, Lamanai y Colha (Scarborough 1991). Se ha sugerido también que unas veintenas de unidades políticas existieron en la región (McAnany 1995). Examinamos estos modelos contrastantes a luz de nueva evidencia de San Estevan. Nuestras excavaciones revelan una secuencia estratigráfica que se extiende a través de depósitos del Formativo Medio y Tardío. Y documentan que su sector central fue repellado luego de 50 cal. a.C.—dentro del lapso general en el cual dieron inicio las edificaciones monumentales en Cerros, Nohmul y Lamanai. El Montículo XV de San Estevan, se construyó sobre estos repellos durante el Formativo Tardío al igual que el cancha de pelota adyacente. Con base en nuestros nuevos datos de excavación sugerimos que San Estevan fue una unidad política independiente durante el Formativo Tardío. Asimismo, proponemos que San Estevan compitió y guerreó con otros centros regionales medianos y grandes, y fue una de aproximadamente 12 unidades políticas independientes en el norte de Belice.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 19 , Issue 2 , June 2008 , pp. 123 - 145
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Aizpurúa, Ilean Isel Isaza, and McAnany, Patricia A. 1999 Adornment and Identity: Shell Ornaments from Formative K’axob. Ancient Mesoamerica 10:117–127.Google Scholar
Ames, Kenneth M. 2002 Going by Boat: The Forager-Collector Continuum at Sea. In Beyond Foraging and Collecting: Evolutionary Change in Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems edited by Ben Fitzhugh and Junko Habu, pp. 19–52. Kluwer/Plenum, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arkush, Elizabeth N., and Allen, Mark W. (editors) 2006 The Archaeology of Warfare: Prehistories of Raiding and Conquest. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Bartlett, Mary L. 2004 The Potter’s Choice of Clays and Crafting Technologies. In K’axob: Ritual, Work, and Family in an Ancient Maya Village, edited by Patricia A. McAnany, pp. 143–167. Monumenta Archaeologica 22. Costen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Bartlett, Mary L., and McAnany, Patricia A. 2000 “Crafting” Communities: The Materialization of Formative Maya Identities. In The Archaeology of Communities: A New World Perspective, edited by Marcello A. Canuto and Jason Yeager, pp. 102–122. Routledge Press, London.Google Scholar
Bartlett, Mary L. Neff, Hector, and McAnany, Patricia A. 2000 Differentiation of Clay Resources on a Limestone Plain: The Analysis of Clay Utilization During the Maya Formative at K’axob, Belize. Geoarchaeology 15:95–133.Google Scholar
Bullard, William R. Jr. 1965 Stratigraphic Excavations at San Estevan, Northern British Honduras. Arts and Archaeology Occasional Paper 9. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.Google Scholar
Carniero, Robert L. 1970 A Theory of the Origins of the State. Science 169:733–738.Google Scholar
Carniero, Robert L. 1992 Point Counterpoint: Ecology and Ideology in the Development of New World Civilizations. In Ideology and Precolumbian Civilizations, edited by Arthur A. Demarest and Geoffrey W Conrad, pp. 175–204. School of American Research, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 1998 The Architectural Context of Caches, Burials and Other Ritual Activities for the Classic Period Maya (as Reflected at Caracol, Belize). In Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture, edited by Stephen D. Houston, pp. 299–332. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington DC. Google Scholar
Clark, John E., and Hansen, Richard D. 2001 The Architecture of Early Kingship: Comparative Perspectives on the Origins of the Maya Royal Court. In Royal Courts of the Ancient Maya, Volume Two: Data and Case Studies, edited by Takeshi Inomata and Stephen D. Houston, pp. 1–45. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Coe, Michael D. 1962 Mexico. Praeger, New York.Google Scholar
Cohen, Robert 1984 Warfare and State Formation: Wars Make States and States Make Wars. In Warfare, Culture, and Environment, edited by R. Brian Ferguson, pp. 329–358. Academic Press, Orlando.Google Scholar
Crumley, Carol L. 1995 Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies. In Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, edited by Robert M. Ehrenreich, Carol L. Crumley and Janet E. Levy, pp. 1–5. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, No. 6. American Anthropological Association, Arlington.Google Scholar
Demarest, Arthur 2004 Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Earle, Timothy 1997 How Chiefs Come to Power: The Political Economy in Prehistory. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Estrada-Belli, Francisco 2006 Lightning Sky, Rain, and the Maize God: Cival, Peten, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 17:57–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feinman, Gary, and Nicholas, Linda M. 1993 Shell-Ornament Production at Ejutla: Implications for Highland-Coastal Interaction in Ancient Oaxaca. Ancient Mesoamerica 4:103–119.Google Scholar
Flannery, Kent V. 1999 The Ground Plans for Archaic States. In Archaic States edited by Gary M. Feinman and Joyce Marcus, pp. 15-57. School of American Research, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Folan, William J., Marcus, Joyce, Pincemin, S. Domínguez Carrasco, M., Fletcher, L., and Morales López, A. 1995 Calakmul: New Data from an Ancient Maya Capital in Campeche, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 6:310–334.Google Scholar
Folan, William J., Morales López, A., and Tiesler, Vera 2002 La Ciudad y Puerto de Chapetón, Campeche: Investigaciones Arqueológicas Recientes. Mexican 24:23.Google Scholar
Freidel, David A. 1978 Maritime Adaptation and the Rise of Maya Civilization: The View from Cerros, Belize. In Prehistoric Costal Adaptations, edited by Barbara L. Stark and Barbara Voorhies, pp. 239-265. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Freidel, David A. 1986 Maya Warfare: An Example of Peer Polity Interaction. In Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change, edited by Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry, pp. 93-108. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Freidel, David A., Reese-Taylor, Kafheryn, and Mora-Marin, David 2002 The Origins of Maya Civilization: The Old Shell Game, Commodity, Treasure and Kingship. In Ancient Maya Economies, edited by Marilyn A. Masson and David A. Fredel, pp. 41-86. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek.Google Scholar
Freidel, David A., and Scarborough, Vernon L. 1982 Subsistence, Trade, and Development of the Coastal Maya. In Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston, edited by Kent V. Flannery, pp. 131-155. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Freidel, David A., and Scheie, Linda 1988 Kingship in the Late Preclassic Maya Lowlands: the Instruments and Places of Ritual Power. American Anthropologist 90:547–567.Google Scholar
Freidel, David A., Schele, Linda, and Parker, Joy 1993 Maya Cosmos: Three Thousand Years on the Shaman’s Path. William Morrow, New York.Google Scholar
Garber, James F. 1984 A Functional Assessment and Contextual Analysis of the Sherd Disks from Cerros, Northern Belize. Cerámica de la Cultura Maya 13:76–83.Google Scholar
Garber, James F. 1989 Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume II: The Artifacts. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Guernsey, Julia 2006 Rulership and Power in Stone: The Performance of Rulership in Mesoamerican Izapan Style Art. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1975 Maya Settlement Hierarchy in Northern Belize. In Studies in Ancient Mesoamerica, II, edited by John A. Graham, pp. 40-55. Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility No. 27. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1991a Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1991b Ceramic, Bone, Shell, and Ground Stone Artifacts. In Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, edited by N. Hammond, pp. 176-191. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1999 The Genesis of Hierarchy: Mortuary and Offeratory Ritual in the Pre-Classic at Cuello, Belize. In Social Patterns in Pre-Classic Mesoamerica, edited by David C. Grove and Rosemary A. Joyce, pp. 49-66. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 2006 Early Symbolic Expression in the Maya Lowlands. Mexicon 28:25–28.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman, and Gerhardt, Juliette Cartwright 1990 Early Maya Architectural Innovation at Cuello, Belize. World Archaeology 21:461–481.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman, Donaghey, Sara, Gleason, Colleen, Staneko, J. C., Van Tuerenhout, Dirk, and Kosakowsky, Laura J. 1987 Excavations at Nohmul, 1985. Journal of Field Archaeology 14:257–281.Google Scholar
Hammond, N., Kosakowsky, Laura J., Anne Pyburn, K., Rose, John R., Steneko, J. C., Donaghey, Sara, Clark, C. M., Horton, Mark, Gleason, Colleen, Muyskens, Deborah, and Addyman, Thomas 1988 The Evolution of an Ancient Maya City: Nohmul. National Geographic Research 4:474–495.Google Scholar
Hansen, Richard D. 1990 Excavations in the Tigre Complex El Mirador, Petén, Guatemala. El Mirador Series, Part 3. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation 62. Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Hansen, Richard D. 2000 The First Cities—The Beginnings of Urbanization and State Formation in the Maya Lowlands. In Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest, edited by Nicolai Grube, pp. 50-65. Konemann Press, Cologne.Google Scholar
Hansen, Richard D., Bozarth, Steven, Jacob, John, Wahl, Divid, and Schreiner, Thomas 2002 Climate and Environmental Variability in the Rise of Maya Civilization. Ancient Mesoamerica 13:273–295.Google Scholar
Johnston, Kevin J. 2006 Preclassic Maya Occupation of the Itzan Escarpment, Lower Río de la Pasión, Peten, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 17:177–201.Google Scholar
Keeley, Lawrence H., Fontana, Marisa, and Quick, Russell 2007 Baffles and Bastions: The Universal Features of Fortifications. Journal of Archaeological Research 15:55–95.Google Scholar
Kennett, Douglas J. 2005 The Island Chumash: Behavioral Ecology of a Maritime Society. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Kennett, Douglas J., and Kennett, James P. 2000 Competitive and Cooperative Responses to Climatic Instability in Southern California. American Antiquity 65:379–395.Google Scholar
Kennett, Douglas J., and Kennett, James P. 2006 Sea Levels, Shorelines, Climate Change, and Cultural Evolution in Southern Mesopotamia. Journal of Island & Coastal Archaeology 1:39–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennett, Douglas J., Anderson, Atholl, Prebble, Matthew, Conte, Eric, and Southon, John 2006 Human Impacts on Rapa, French Polynesia. Antiquity 80:340–354.Google Scholar
Kolb, Michael J., and Dixon, Boyd 2002 Landscapes of War: Rules and Conventions of Conflict in Ancient Hawai’i (and Elsewhere). American Antiquity 67:514–534.Google Scholar
Kosakowsky, Laura J. 1987 Preclassic Maya Pottery at Cuello, Belize. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, Number 47. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Kosakowsky, Laura J., and Pring, Duncan 1991 Ceramic Chronology and Typology. In Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, edited by Norman Hammond, pp. 60-69. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Kosakowsky, Laura J., and Pring, Duncan 1998 The Ceramics of Cuello, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 9:55–66.Google Scholar
Laporte, Juan Pedro, and Fialko, Vilma 1995 Un Reencuentro con Mundo Perdido, Tikal, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 6:41–94.Google Scholar
Laporte, Juan Pedro, and Valdés, Juan Antonio 1993 Tikal y Uaxactún en el Preclásico. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D. F. Google Scholar
Levi, Laura J. 1993 Prehispanic Residence and Community at San Estevan, Belize. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
Levi, Laura J. 1996 Sustained Production and Residential Variation: A Historical Perspective on Lowland Maya Domestic Economy. In Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott Fedick, pp. 92-106. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Levi, Laura J. 2002 An Institutional Perspective on Prehispanic Maya Residential Variation: Settlement and Community at San Estevan, Belize. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 21:120–141.Google Scholar
Levi, Laura J. 2003 Space and the Limits to Community. In Perspectives on Ancient Maya Rural Complexity, edited by Giles Iannone and Samuel V. Connell, pp. 82-93. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, Monograph 49. Cotsen Institute, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
López Varela, Sandra L. 1996 The K’axob Formative Ceramics: The Search for Regional Integration Through a Reappraisal of Ceramic Analysis and Classification in Northern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, University of London, London.Google Scholar
López Varela, Sandra L. 2005 The Microcosmos of Formative Pottery from K’axob, Belize. In New Perspectives on Formative Mesoamerican Cultures, edited by Terry G. Powis, pp. 156-169. BAR International Series 1377. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Lowe, Gareth W., Lee, Thomas A. Jr., and Espinoza, E. M. 1982 Izapa: An Introduction to the Ruins and Monuments. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation 31. Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 1995 Living with the Ancestors: Kinship and Kingship in Ancient Maya Society. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 2001 Cosmology and the Institutionalization of Hierarchy in the Maya Region. In From Leaders to Rulers, edited by Jonathan Haas, pp. 125-148. Klewer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 2004 K’axob: Ritual, Work, and Family in an Ancient Maya Village. Monumenta Archaeologica 22. Costen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A., and López Varela, Sandra L. 1999 Re-creating the Formative Maya Village of K’axob: Chronology, Ceramic Complexes and Ancestors in Architectural Context. Ancient Mesoamerica 10:147–168.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A., Storey, Rebecca, and Lockard, Angela K. 1999 Mortuary Ritual and Family Politics at Formative and Early Classic K’axob, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 10:129–146.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A., Thomas, Ben S., Morando, Steven, Peterson, Polly A., and Harrison, Elenor 2002 In Ancient Maya Political Economies, edited by Marilyn A. Masson and David A. Freidel, pp. 123-139. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather 2002 Salt: White Gold of the Ancient Maya, University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Marcus, Joyce 1983 Lowland Maya Archaeology at the Cross Roads. American Antiquity 48:454–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marcus, Joyce 1993 Ancient Maya Political Organization. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D., edited by Jeremy Sabloff and John S. Henderson, pp. 11-63. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Marcus, Joyce 2003 Recent Advances in Maya Archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Research 11:71–148.Google Scholar
Matheny, Ray T. 1987 El Mirador: An Early Maya Metropolis Uncovered. National Geographic Magazine 172(3):316–339.Google Scholar
Moholy-Nagy, Hattula 1989 Formed Shell Beads from Tikal, Guatemala. In Proceedings of the 1986 Shell Bead Conference, edited by Charles F. Haynes III, Lynn Ceci and Connie Cox Bodner, pp. 139-156. Research Record No. 20. Rochester Museum and Science Center, Rochester.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1981 Lamanai, Belize: Summary of Excavation Results, 1974–1980. Journal of Field Archaeology 8:29–53.Google Scholar
Pyburn, K. Anne 1989 Prehistoric Maya Community and Settlement at Nohmul, Belize. BAR International Series 509. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Pyburn, K. Anne 1990 Settlement Patterns at Nohmul: Preliminary Results of Four Excavation Seasons. In Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 183-197. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Pyburn, K. Anne, Dixon, Boyd, Cook, Patricia, and McNair, Anna 1998 The Albion Island Settlement Pattern Project: Domination and Resistance in Early Classic Northern Belize. Journal of Field Archaeology 25:37–62.Google Scholar
Reese, Kathryn V., and Valdez, Fred Jr. 1987 The Ceramic Sequence of Kichpanha: 1979-1985 Seasons. In Maya Ceramics: Papers from the 1985 Maya Ceramic Conference, edited by Prudence M. Rice and Robert J. Sharer, pp. 37-45. BAR International Series 345(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Robertson, Robin 1983 Functional Analysis and Social Process in Ceramics: The Pottery from Cerros, Belize. In Civilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Richard M. Leventhal and Alan L. Kolata, pp. 105-142. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Robertson, Robin A., and Freidel, David A. (editors) 1986 Archaeology at Cerros Belize, Volume I: An Interim Report. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Robin, Cynthia 1989 Preclassic Maya Burials at Cuello, Belize. BAR International Series 380. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Robin, Cynthia, and Hammond, Norman 1991 Burial Practices. In Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, edited by Norman Hammond, pp. 204-225. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Rosenswig, Robert M. 2004 Archaeological Excavation Data from the Late Archaic Occupation of Northern Belize. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 1:267–277.Google Scholar
Rosenswig, Robert M. 2007a San Estevan Archaeological Project 2005. Institute of Mesoamerican Studies, Occasional Publication No. 14. The University at Albany – SUNY, Albany.Google Scholar
Rosenswig, Robert M. 2007b Beyond Identifying Elites: Feasting as a Means to Understand Early Middle Formative Society on the Pacific Coast of Mexico. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 26:1–27.Google Scholar
Rosenswig, Robert M. 2008 Recent Excavations at San Estevan, Northern Belize. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 5, in press.Google Scholar
Rosenswig, Robert M., and Masson, Marilyn A. 2001 Seven New Preceramic Sites Documented in Northern Belize. Mexicon 23:138–140.Google Scholar
Saturno, William A., Stuart, David, and Beltrán, Boris 2006 Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala. Science 311:1281–1283.Google Scholar
Saul, Julie M., and Saul, Frank P. 1997 The Preclassic Skeletons from Cuello. In Bones of the Maya: Studies of Ancient Skeletons, edited by Stephen L. Whittington and David M. Reed, pp. 28-50. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 1983 A Preclassic Maya Water System. American Antiquity 48:720–744.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 1991 Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume III: The Settlement in a Late Preclassic Maya Community. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 2003 The Flow of Power: Ancient Water Systems and Landscapes. SAR Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., and Robertson, Robin A. 1986 Civic and Residential Settlement at a Late Preclassic Maya Center. Journal of Field Archaeology 13:155–175.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., and Valdez, Fred Jr. 2003 The Engineered Environment and Political Economy of the Three Rivers Region. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatan Peninsula. Edited by Vernon L. Scarborough, Fred Valdez, Jr.,and Nicholas Dunning, pp. 3-13. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Shafer, Harry J., and Hester, Thomas R. 1983 Ancient Maya Chert Workshops in Northern Belize. American Antiquity 48:519–543.Google Scholar
Shafer, Harry J., and Hester, Thomas R. 1991 Lithic Craft Specialization and Product Distribution at the Maya site of Colha, Belize. World Archaeology 23:79–97.Google Scholar
Scheie, Linda, and Freidel, David A. 1990 A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. William Morrow, New York.Google Scholar
Sharer, Robert J., and Traxler, Loa P. 2006 The Ancient Maya, Sixth Edition. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Smith, A. Ledyard 1950 Uaxactún, Guatemala: Excavations of 1931–1937. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 588. Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Spencer, Charles S. 1982 The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Stuiver, Minze, and Reimer, Paula J. 1993 Extended 14C Database and Revised Calib 3.0 14C age Calibration Program. Radiocarbon 35:215–230.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Lauren A. 1991 Preclassic Domestic Architecture at Colha Belize. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Turner, B. L. II, and Harrison, Peter D. 1981 Prehistoric Raised Field Agriculture in the Maya Lowlands. Science 213:399–405.Google Scholar
Turner, B. L. II, and Harrison, Peter D. (editors) 1983 Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Valdez, Fred Jr. 1988 The Ceramics of Colha, Belize. Ceramica de la Cultura Maya 15:41–50.Google Scholar
Webster, David 1976 Defensive Earthworks at Becán, Campeche, Mexico: Implications for MayaWarfare. Middle American Research Institute, Publication 41. Tulane University, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Webster, David 1999 Warfare and Status Rivalry: Lowland Maya and Polynesian Comparisons. In Archaic States edited by Gary M. Feinman and Joyce Marcus, pp. 311-351. School of American Research, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Webster, David 2000 The Not So Peaceful Civilization: A Review of Maya War. Journal of World Prehistory 14:65–119.Google Scholar
Wilson, Michael L., and Wrangham, Richard W. 2003 Intergroup Relations in Chimpanzees. Annual Review of Anthropology 32:363–392.Google Scholar
Winter, Marcus 1984 Exchange in Formative Highland Oaxaca. In Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica, edited by Kenneth G. Hirth, pp. 179-214. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Zeitlin, Robert N. 1990 The Isthmus and the Valley of Oaxaca: Questions about Monte Alban Imperialism in the Pacific Lowlands. American Antiquity 55:250–261.Google Scholar