Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T16:12:16.124Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Small Caves and Sacred Geography: A Case Study from the Prehispanic Maya Site of Maax Na, Belize

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Eleanor M. King
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Howard University, Washington, D.C. 20059 ([email protected])
James E. Brady
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, California State University, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032 ([email protected])
Leslie C. Shaw
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, ME 04011 ([email protected])
Allan B. Cobb
Affiliation:
Austin, TX ([email protected])
C. L. Kieffer
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131 ([email protected])
Michael L. Brennan
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI 02882 ([email protected])
Chandra L. Harris
Affiliation:
District of Columbia Historic Preservation Office, Washington, DC 20002 ([email protected])

Abstract

Contemporary research on prehispanic Maya landscapes has focused on caves as core features of the cultural geography. Investigations within a number of large caves have suggested that they served as the loci for important rituals, legitimized inhabitants’ claims to their territory, and helped establish the authority of a site’s ruling elite. The ubiquity and centrality of caves in the Maya worldview raises questions about what happened in regions where large caves did not naturally form. Recent investigations at the site of Maax Na in northern Belize suggest that small caves, despite their diminutive size, still functioned to establish legitimacy and uphold power. The results serve to demonstrate the pervasive power of key ideological concepts in shaping the cultural landscape and indicate the need to take these into account in documenting landmarks at Maya sites, as even the less imposing ones may have been important to their inhabitants.

Investigaciones contemporáneas del paisaje prehispánico maya se han enfocado sobre las cuevas como aspectos centrales de la geografía cultural. Exploraciones en varias cuevas grandes sugirieron que éstas sirvieron como lugares para rituales importantes, legitimaron el derecho de sus habitantes a su territorio, y ayudaron a establecer la autoridad de los soberanos del sitio. La ubicuidad y la centralidad de las cuevas en la cosmovisión maya plantea el problema de qué pasó en regiones donde no se forman cuevas grandes naturalmente. Investigaciones recientes en el sitio de Maax Na en el norte de Belice sugieren que las cuevas pequeñas, a pesar de su tamaño diminuto, también funcionaron para establecer la legitimidad y mantener el poder. Los resultados demuestran el poder penetrante de conceptos ideológicos críticos en la construcción del paisaje cultural e indican la necesidad de tomar a éstos en cuenta cuando documentamos puntos prominentes de ese paisaje en los sitios mayas, porque aún los menos imponentes podrían ser importantes para sus habitantes.

Type
Themed Reports Section: Caves and Rockshelters
Copyright
Copyright © 2012 by the Society for American Archaeology.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adams, Abigail E., and Brady, James 2005 Ethnographic Notes on Maya Q’eqchi’ Cave Rites: Implications for Archaeological Interpretation. In In the Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer, pp. 301327. University of Texas Press, Austin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aguilar, Manuel, Jaen, Miguel Medina, Tucker, Tim M., and Brady, James E. 2005 Constructing Mythic Space: The Significance of a Chicomoztoc Complex at Acatzingo Viejo. In In the Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer, pp. 6987. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Anderson, A. Hamilton 1962 Cave Sites in British Honduras. In Akten des XXXIV Internationale Amerikanisten-Kongresses, pp. 326331. Verlad Ernest Berger, Horn, Vienna.Google Scholar
Arnold, Philip P. 1999 Eating Landscape. Aztec and European Occupation of Tlalocan. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Ashmore, Wendy 1991 Site-Planning Principles and Concepts of Directionality Among the Ancient Maya. Latin American Antiquity 2:199226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashmore, Wendy, and Bernard Knapp, A., eds. 1999 Archaeologies of Landscape: Contemporary Perspectives. Blackwell, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashmore, Wendy, and Sabloff, Jeremy A. 2002 Spatial Orders in Maya Civic Plans. Latin American Antiquity 13:201215.Google Scholar
Becker, Marshall J. 1979 Priests, Peasants, and Ceremonial Centers: The Intellectual History of a Model. In Maya Archaeology and Ethnohistory, edited by Norman Hammond and Gordon R. Willey, pp. 320. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Brady, James E. 1989 An Investigation of Maya Ritual Cave Use with Special Reference to Naj Tunich, Peten, Guatemala. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Archaeology Program, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Brady, James E. 1991 Caves and Cosmovision at Utatlan. California Archaeologist 18(1):110.Google Scholar
Brady, James E. 1996 Sources for the Study of Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use. Studies in Mesoamerican Cave Use, Publication No. 1. George Washington University, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Brady, James E. 1997 Settlement Configuration and Cosmology: The Role of Caves at Dos Pilas. American Anthropologist 99:602618.Google Scholar
Brady, James E. 2004 Constructed Landscapes: Exploring the Meaning and Significance of Recent Discoveries of Artificial Caves. Ketzalcalli 1:217.Google Scholar
Brady, James E. 2005 Foreword. In The Hill-Caves of Yucatan by Henry C. Mercer, f-1-f-23. Association for Mexican Cave Studies, Austin.Google Scholar
Brady, James E. 2012 The Architectural Cave as an Early Form of Artificial Cave in the Maya Lowlands. In Heart of Earth: Studies in Maya Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady, pp. 6168. Bulletin No. 23. Association for Mexican Cave Studies, Austin.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Ashmore, Wendy 1999 Mountains, Caves, Water: Ideational Landscapes of the Ancient Maya. In Archaeologies of Landscapes: Contemporary Perspectives, edited by Wendy Ashmore and A. Bernard Knapp, pp. 124145. Blackwell, Oxford.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Colas, Pierre R. 2005 Nikte Mo’Scattered Fire in the Cave of K’ab Chante: Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence for Cave Desecration in Ancient Maya Warfare. In Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context, edited by Keith M. Prufer and James E. Brady, pp. 149166. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Garza, Sergio 2009 Aspects of Ritual Organization in Santa Eulalia, Guatemala. In Exploring Highland Maya Ritual Cave Use: Archaeology & Ethnography in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, edited by James E. Brady, pp. 8185. Bulletin No. 20. Association for Maya Cave Studies, Austin.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Peterson, Polly A. 2008 Re-envisioning Ancient Maya Ritual Assemblages. In Religion, Archaeology, and the Material World, edited by Lars Fogelin, pp. 7896. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 36. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Prufer, Keith M. 2005a Introduction: A History of Mesoamerican Cave Interpretation. In In the Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer, pp. 117. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Prufer, Keith M. 2005b Maya Cave Archaeology: A New Look at Religion and Cosmology. In Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context, edited by Keith M. Prufer and James E. Brady, pp. 365379. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Rodas, Irma 1995 Maya Ritual Cave Deposits; Recent Insights from the Cueva de los Quetzales. Institute of Maya Studies Journal 1(1):1725.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Veni, George 1992 Man-Made and Pseudo-Karst Caves: The Implications of Subsurface Geologic Features Within Maya Centers. Geoarchaeology 7(2):149167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Clifford T. 2005 Caves, Karst, and Settlement at Mayapán, Yucatán. In In the Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer, pp. 373411. University of Texas Press, Austin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunzel, Ruth 1952 Chichicastenango: A Maya Village. J. J. Augustine, Locust Valley, New York.Google Scholar
Carter, James B. 1935 A Brief Description of the Ruins of Chucanob. Maya Research 2(1):3659.Google Scholar
Cook, Garrett 1986 Quichean Folk Theology and Southern Maya Supernaturalism. In Symbol and Meaning Beyond the Closed Community: Essays in Mesoamerican Ideas, edited by Gary H. Gossen, pp. 139153. Institute of Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York, Albany.Google Scholar
Demarest, Arthur, Morgan, Kim, Wooley, Claudia, and Escobedo, Héctor 2003 The Political Acquisition of Sacred Geography. In Maya Palaces and Elite Residences: An Interdisciplinary Approach, edited by Jessica Joyce Christie, pp. 120153. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Digby, Adrian 1958 A New Maya City Discovered in British Honduras at Las Cuevas and an Underground Necropolis Revealed. London Illustrated News 232:274275.Google Scholar
Duby, Gertrude, and Blom, Frans 1969 The Lacandon. In Ethnology, edited by Evon Z. Vogt, pp. 276297. Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 7. Robert Wauchope, general editor. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas, Jones, John G., Beach, Timothy, and Luzzadder-Beach, Sheryl. 2003 Physiography, Habitats, and Landscapes of the Three Rivers Region. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatán Peninsula, edited by Vernon L. Scarborough, Fred Valdez, Jr., and Nicholas Dunning, pp. 1424. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas P., Luzzadder-Beach, Sheryl, Beach, Timothy, Jones, John G., Scarborough, Vernon, and Patrick Gilbert, T.. 2002 Arising from the Bajos: The Evolution of a Neotropical Landscape and the Rise of Maya Civilization. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92:267283.Google Scholar
Freidel, David A, and Sabloff, Jeremy 1984 Cozumel: Late Maya Settlement Patterns. Academic Press, Orlando.Google Scholar
García Cruz, F. 1991 Aktunkin: A Maya Cavern in Campeche. Mexicon 13(3):45.Google Scholar
García-Zambrano, Angel J. 1994 Early Colonial Evidence of Pre-Columbian Rituals of Foundation. In Seventh Palenque Round Table, 1989, edited by Merle Greene Robertson and Virginia Field, pp. 217227. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco, California..Google Scholar
Garza, Sergio 2008 The Cosmological and Social Significance of Quen Santo in Contemporary Maya Society. Paper presented at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Vancouver, BC, Canada.Google Scholar
Garza, Sergio 2009 The Social and Cosmological Significance of Quen Santo in Contemporary Maya Society. In Exploring Highland Maya Ritual Cave Use: Archaeology & Ethnography in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, edited by James E.. Brady, pp. 4954. Bulletin No. 20. Association for Maya Cave Studies, Austin.Google Scholar
Guiteras Holmes, Calixta 1952 Social Organization. In Heritage of Conquest: The Ethnology of Middle America, edited by Sol Tax, pp. 97118. Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois.Google Scholar
Halperin, Christina T. 2005 Social Power and Sacred Space at Actun Nak Beh, Belize. In Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context, edited by Keith M. Prufer and James E. Brady, pp. 7190. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1991 The Discovery of La Milpa. Mexicon 13:4651.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman, and Tourtellot, Gair 2004 Out With a Whimper: La Milpa in the Terminal Classic. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation, edited by Arthur A. Demarest, Prudence M. Rice, and Donald S. Rice, pp. 288301. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Hanks, William F. 1984 Sanctification, Structure, and Experience in a Yucatec Ritual Event. Journal of American Folklore 97:131166.Google Scholar
Hermes Cifuentes, Bernard 1993 La secuencia cerámica de Topoxté: un informe preliminar. Beiträge zur allgemeinen und vergleichenden Archaologie 13:221252.Google Scholar
Heyden, Doris 1976 Los ritos de paso en las cuevas. Boletín del Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Epoca 2, 19:1726.Google Scholar
Heyden, Doris 2005 Rites of Passage and Other Ceremonies in Caves. In In the Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer, pp. 2134. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Houk, Brett A. 1996 The Archaeology of Site Planning: An Example from the Maya Site of Dos Hombres, Belize. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, Austin. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Houk, Brett A. 2003 The Ties that Bind: Site Planning in the Three Rivers Region. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatan Peninsula, edited by Vernon L. Scarborough, Fred Valdez, Jr., and Nicholas Dunning, pp. 5263. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Ishihara-Brito, Reiko, and Guerra, Jenny 2012 Windows of the Earth: An Ethnoarchaeological Study on Cave Use in Suchitepéquez and Sololá, Guatemala. In Heart of Earth: Studies in Maya Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady, pp. 5160. Bulletin No. 23. Association for Mexican Cave Studies, Austin.Google Scholar
Joyce, Thomas A, 1929 Report on the British Museum Expedition to British Honduras, 1929. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 59:439459.Google Scholar
Joyce, Thomas A., Gann, Thomas, Gruning, Edward L., and Long, Richard C. E. 1928 Report on the British Museum Expedition to British Honduras, 1928. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Society 58:323349.Google Scholar
King, David T. Jr., Pope, Kevin O., and Petruny, Lucille W. 2004 Stratigraphy of Belize, North of the 17th Parallel. Gulf Coast Association of Societies Transactions 54:289303.Google Scholar
King, Eleanor M., and Shaw, Leslie C. 2003 A Heterarchical Approach to Site Variability: The Maax Na Archaeology Project. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatan Peninsula, edited by Vernon L. Scarborough, Fred Valdez, Jr., and Nicholas Dunning, pp. 5263. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
King, Eleanor M., and Shaw, Leslie C. 2006 Preliminary Report of Fieldwork at Maax Na, Belize, 2005. In Programme for Belize Archaeological Project: Report of Activities from the 2005 Season, edited by Fred Valdez, Jr., pp. 8997. Occasional Papers No. 6. Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin, Austin.Google Scholar
King, Eleanor M., and Shaw, Leslie C. 2007 Maax Na: Layout and Function of a Maya City: Report of the 2006 Field Season. In Research Reports From the Programme for Belize Archaeological Project, edited by Fred Valdez, Jr., pp. 109116. Occasional Paper No. 8. Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin, Austin.Google Scholar
Knapp, A. Bernard, and Ashmore, Wendy 1999 Archaeological Landscapes: Constructed, Conceptualized, and Ideational. In Archaeologies of Landscapes: Contemporary Perspectives, edited by Wendy Ashmore and A. Bernard Knapp, pp. 130. Blackwell, Oxford.Google Scholar
Kunen, Julie L. 2001 Ancient Maya Agricultural Installations and the Development of Intensive Agriculture in NW Belize. Journal of Field Archaeology 28:325346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kunen, Julie L. 2004 Ancient Maya Life in the Far West Bajo. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona No. 69. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
LaFarge, Oliver 1947 Santa Eulalia: The Religion of a Cuchumatán Indian Town. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Lothrop, Samuel Kirkland 1924 Tulum: An Archaeological Study of the East Coast of Yucatan. Publication No. 335. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Lucero, Lisa J., and Fash, Barbara W. 2006 Precolumbian Water Management. Ideology, Ritual, and Power. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Lundell, Cyrus Longwork 1934 Ruins of Polol and Other Archaeological Discoveries in the Department of Peten, Guatemala. Contributions to American Archaeology No. 8. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Mason, Gregory 1927 Silver Cities of Yucatan. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York.Google Scholar
McNatt, Logan 1996 Cave Archaeology of Belize. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 58(2):8199.Google Scholar
Millon, René 1981 Teotihuacan: City, State, and Civilization. In Archaeology, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff, pp. 198243. Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 1, Victoria Bricker, general editor. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Morales López, Abel 1987 Arqueología de salvamento en la nueva carretera a Calakmul, Municipio de Champoton, Campeche. Información 12:75109.Google Scholar
Morales López, Abel, and Sumner-Faust, Betty B. 1986 Tabasqueño: indicios de la cosmología maya en un sitio de los Chenes, Campeche, Mexico. Informacion 11:977.Google Scholar
Patel, Shankari 2005 Pilgrimage and Caves on Cozumel. In Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context, edited by Keith M. Prufer and James E. Brady, pp. 91112. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Patton, James L. 1987 The Architecture and Sculpture of Polol, El Peten, Guatemala. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Peterson, Polly A. 2006 Ancient Maya Ritual Cave Use in the Sibun Valley, Belize. Bulletin No. 16. Association for Mexican Cave Studies, Austin.Google Scholar
Potter, Daniel R., and King, Eleanor M. 1995 A Heterarchical Approach to Lowland Maya Socioeconomics. In Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, edited by Robert M. Ehrenreich, Carole L. Crumley, and Janet E. Levy, pp. 1732. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association No.6. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia.Google Scholar
Prufer, Keith Malcolm 2002 Communities, Caves and Ritual Specialists: A Study of Sacred Space in the May a Mountains of Southern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Prufer, Keith M., and Brady, James E. (editors) 2005 Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Prufer, Keith M., and Kindon, Andrew 2005 Replicating The Sacred Landscape: The Ce’en at Muklebal Tzul. In Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context, edited by Keith M. Prufer and James E. Brady, pp. 2516. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W. 2001 Flood Reptiles, Serpent Temples, and the Quadripartite Universe: The Imago Mundi of Late Postclassic Mayapan. Ancient Mesoamerica 12:247258.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W. 2005 Cracks in the Carapace: Underworld Metaphors in Late Postclassic Maya Ceremonial Groups. In Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context, edited by Keith M. Prufer and James E. Brady, pp. 4769. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Rissolo, Dominique A. 2003 Ancient Maya Cave Use in the Yalahau Region, Northern Quintana Roo, Mexico. Bulletin No. 12, Association for Mexican Cave Studies, Austin.Google Scholar
Rissolo, Dominique, Rodríguez, José Manuel Ochoa, and Ball, Joseph W. 2005 A Reassessment of the Middle Preclassic in Northern Quintana Roo. In Quintana Roo Archaeology, edited Justine M. Shaw and Jennifer P. Mathews, pp. 6676. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Sanders, William T. 1955 An Archaeological Reconnaissance of Northern Quintana Roo. Current Report No. 24. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L, Valdez, Fred Jr., and Dunning, Nicholas P. 2003 Introduction. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatán Peninsula, edited by Vernon L. Scarborough, Fred Valdez, Jr., and Nicholas Dunning, pp. 6476. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Schwartzkopf, Stacey 2009 Ritual Cave Use Among Q’anjob’alan Peoples in Colonial Northern Huehuetenango. In Exploring Highland Maya Ritual Cave Use: Archaeology & Ethnography in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, edited by James E. Brady, pp. 9197. Bulletin 20, Association for Maya Cave Studies, Austin.Google Scholar
Scott, Ann M. 2009 Communicating with the Sacred Earthscape: An Ethnoarchaeological Investigation of Kaqchikel Maya Ceremonies in Highland Guatemala. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Seler, Eduard 1901 Die Alten Ansiedlungen von Chaculá, im Distrikte Nentón des Departments Huehuetenango der Republik Guatemala. Dietrich Reiner Verlag, Berlin.Google Scholar
Sharer, Robert J. and Traxler, Loa P. 2006 The Ancient Maya. 6th ed. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.Google Scholar
Shaw, Leslie C. 2001 The Maax Na Archaeology Project: Documentation of Stelae, Altars, and Cave Entrances in the West Ceremonial Group. Electronic document, http://www.famsi.org/reports/00100/index.html, accessed October 14, 2012.Google Scholar
Shaw, Leslie, King, Eleanor, and Chiarulli, Beverly 2005 Research at Maax Na, Belize: Report on the 2004 Season, In Programme for Belize Archaeological Project: Report of Activities from the 2004 Season, pp. 97112. Occasional Papers No. 4. Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin, Austin.Google Scholar
Stephens, John Lloyd 1962 [1843] Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. 2 vols. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Terrones González, Enrique 1990 Proyecto Salvamento Arqueológico Rancho Ina Quintana Roo. Mexicon 12:8992.Google Scholar
Thompson, Edward H. 1938 The High Priest’s Grave, Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico. Anthropology Series, Vol. 27, No.1. Field Museum o Natural History, Chicago, Illinois.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uke, Tugrul 1970 Cutting the Hour. Westways 62(5):3033, 57.Google Scholar
Valdez, Fred Jr. 1995 The PfB Archaeological Project: Summer Program 1994. In The Programme for Belize Archaeological Project 1994 Interim Report, edited by Richard E. W. Adams and Fred Valdez, Jr., pp. 1517. Center for Archaeological and Tropical Studies, San Antonio, and University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio.Google Scholar
Villa Rojas, Alfonso 1945 The Maya of East Central Quintana Roo. Publicatioi No. 599. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington D.C.Google Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z., and Stuart, David 2005 Some Notes on Ritual Caves Among the Ancient and Modern Maya. In In the Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer, pp. 155185. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R. 1953 Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in the Viru Valley Peru. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin No. 155 Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar