Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T21:48:41.813Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Word association research and the L2 lexicon

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 May 2020

Tess Fitzpatrick  and
Peter Thwaites
Tess Fitzpatrick
Affiliation:
Swansea University, Wales, UK
Peter Thwaites*
Affiliation:
Keimyung University, Republic of Korea
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Since its modern inception in the late nineteenth century, research on word associations has developed into a large and diverse area of study, including work with both applied linguistic and psycholinguistic orientations. However, despite significant recent interest in the use of word association to investigate second language (L2) vocabulary knowledge and testing, there has until now been no systematic attempt to review the wider word association research tradition for the benefit of L2-oriented researchers and practitioners. This paper seeks to address this, drawing together linguistic research from the past 150 years, with a focus on research published since 2000. We evaluate the current state of L2 word association research, before identifying methodological and theoretical themes from a broader range of disciplinary approaches. Emerging from this, new paradigms are identified which have potential to catalyse a new phase of work for second language word association scholars, and which indicate priority foci for future work.

Type
State-of-the-Art Article
Information
Language Teaching , Volume 53 , Issue 3 , July 2020 , pp. 237 - 274
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adelman, J. S., Brown, G. D. A., & Quesada, J. F. (2006). Contextual diversity, not word frequency, determines word-naming and lexical decision times. Psychological Science, 17(9), 814–823.10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01787.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aitchison, J. (2012). Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon (4th ed.). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Albrechtsen, D., Haastrup, K., & Henriksen, B. (2008). Vocabulary and writing in a first and second language: Processes and development. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.10.1057/9780230593404CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, M., Frank, S., & Vigliocco, G. (2014). Reconciling embodied and distributional accounts of meaning in language. Topics in Cognitive Science, 6(3), 359–370.10.1111/tops.12096CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, M., Vigliocco, G., & Vinson, D. P. (2009). Integrating experiential and distributional data to learn semantic representations. Psychological Review, 116(3), 463–498.10.1037/a0016261CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, M., Vinson, D. P., & Vigliocco, G. (2008). Inferring a probabilistic model of semantic memory from word association norms. In Proceedings of the 30th annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society, 1941–1946.Google Scholar
Bally, C., & Sechehaye, A. (1966). Course in general linguistics Ferdinand de Saussure. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company.Google Scholar
Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 617–645.10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093639CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barsalou, L. W., Santos, A., Simmons, W. K., & Wilson, C. D. (2008). Language and simulation in conceptual processing. In De Vega, M., & Glenberg, A. M. (Eds.), Symbols, embodiment, and meaning (pp. 245–283). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199217274.003.0013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batty, A. (2012). Identifying dimensions of vocabulary knowledge in the word associates test. Vocabulary Learning and Instruction, 1(1), 70–77.10.7820/vli.v01.1.battyCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckage, N. M., Smith, L. B., & Hills, T. (2010). Semantic network connectivity is related to vocabulary growth rate in children. Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 2769–2774.Google Scholar
Bergen, B. K., & Chang, N. (2004). Embodied construction grammar in simulation-based language understanding. In Östman, J., & Fried, M. (Eds.), Construction grammars: Cognitive grounding and theoretical extensions (pp. 147–189). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Bird, H., Franklin, S., & Howard, D. (2001). Age of acquisition and imageability ratings for a large set of words, including verbs and function words. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 33(1), 73–79.10.3758/BF03195349CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bøyum, M. (2016). A new word association test for Norwegian (M.A. dissertation). University of Oslo.Google Scholar
Brown, R., & Berko, J. (1960). Word association and the acquisition of grammar. Child Development, 31(1), 1–14.10.2307/1126377CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, W. P. (1971). A retrospective study of stimulus variables in word association. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10(4), 355–366.10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80034-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brysbaert, M., Van Wijnendaele, I., & De Deyne, S. (2000). Age-of-acquisition effects in semantic processing tasks. Acta Psychologica, 104(2), 215–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brysbaert, M., Warriner, A. B., & Kuperman, V. (2014). Concreteness ratings for 40 thousand generally known English word lemmas. Behavior Research Methods, 46(3), 904–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bybee, J., & Beckner, C. (2010). Usage-based theory. In Heine, B., & Narrog, H. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of linguistic analysis (pp. 827–856). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cramer, P. (1968). Word association. New York, NY: Academic Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Cremer, M., Dingshoff, D., de Beer, M., & Schoonen, R. (2011). Do word associations assess word knowledge? A comparison of L1 and L2, child and adult word associations. International Journal of Bilingualism, 15(2), 187–204.10.1177/1367006910381189CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cremer, M., & Schoonen, R. (2013). The role of accessibility of semantic word knowledge in monolingual and bilingual fifth-grade reading. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(6), 1195–1217.10.1017/S0142716412000203CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dagenbach, D., Horst, S., & Carr, T. H. (1990). Adding new information to semantic memory: how much learning is enough to produce automatic priming? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(4), 581–591.Google ScholarPubMed
De Deyne, S., Navarro, D. J., Perfors, A., Brysbaert, M., & Storms, G. (2018). The ‘Small World of Words’: English word association norms for over 12,000 cue words. Behavior Research Methods, 51(3), 987–1006.10.3758/s13428-018-1115-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Deyne, S., Navarro, D. J., & Storms, G. (2012). Better explanations of lexical and semantic cognition using networks derived from continued rather than single-word associations. Behavior Research Methods, 45(2), 480–498.10.3758/s13428-012-0260-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Deyne, S., & Storms, G. (2008). Word associations: Network and semantic properties. Behavior Research Methods, 40(1), 213–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Deyne, S., & Storms, G. (2015). Word associations. In Taylor, J. R. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of the word (pp. 465–480). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
De Deyne, S., Verheyen, S., & Storms, G. (2016). Structure and organization of the mental lexicon: A network approach derived from syntactic dependency relations and word associations. In Mehler, A., Lücking, A., Banisch, S., Blanchard, P., & Job, B. (Eds.), Towards a theoretical framework for analyzing complex linguistic networks. Understanding complex systems (pp. 47–79). Berlin – Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.10.1007/978-3-662-47238-5_3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deese, J. (1962a). On the structure of associative meaning. Psychological Review, 69(3), 161–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deese, J. (1962b). Form class and the determinants of association. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1, 79–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deese, J. (1966). The structure of associations in language and thought. Baltimore, MD : Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
de Groot, A. M. B. (1989). Representational aspects of word imageability and word frequency as assessed through word association. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15(5), 824–845.Google Scholar
Dronjic, V., & Helms-Park, R. (2014). Fixed-choice word-association tasks as second-language lexical tests: What native-speaker performance reveals about their potential weaknesses. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35(1), 193–221.10.1017/S014271641200029XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duñabeitia, J. A., Avilés, A., & Carreiras, M. (2008). NoA's ark: Influence of the number of associates in visual word recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15(6), 1072–1077.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, N. C., Römer, U., & O'Donnell, M. B. (2016). Usage-based approaches to language acquisition and processing: Cognitive and corpus investigations of construction grammar. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Entwisle, D. R. (1966). Form class and children's word associations. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 5(6), 558–565.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Entwisle, D. R., Forsyth, D. F., & Muuss, R. (1964). The syntactic-paradigmatic shift in children's word associations. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 3(1), 19–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ervin, S. M. (1961). Changes with age in the verbal determinants of word-association. The American Journal of Psychology, 74(3), 361–372.10.2307/1419742CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Esper, E. A. (1918). A contribution to the experimental study of analogy. Psychological Review, 25(6), 468–487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernandino, L., Binder, J. R., Desai, R. H., Pendl, S. L., Humphries, C. J., Gross, W. L., … Seidenberg, M. S. (2016). Concept representation reflects multimodal abstraction: A framework for embodied semantics. Cerebral Cortex, 26(5), 2018–2035.10.1093/cercor/bhv020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzpatrick, T. (2006). Habits and rabbits: Word associations and the L2 lexicon. In Foster-Cohen, S. H., Medved Krajnovic, M., & Mihaljevic Djigunovic, J. (Eds.), EUROSLA Yearbook (Vol. 6, pp. 121–45). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, T. (2007). Word association patterns: Unpacking the assumptions. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17(3), 319–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, T. (2009). Word association profiles in a first and second language: puzzles and problems. In Fitzpatrick, T., & Barfield, A. (Eds.), Lexical processing in second language learners (pp. 38–52). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, T. (2012). Tracking the changes: vocabulary acquisition in the study abroad context. The Language Learning Journal, 40(1), 81–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, T., & Izura, C. (2011). Word Association in L1 and L2: An exploratory study of response types, response times, and interlingual mediation. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(3), 373–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, T., & Munby, I. (2014). Word associations and the L2 lexicon. In Milton, J., & Fitzpatrick, T. (Eds.), Dimensions of vocabulary knowledge (pp. 92–105). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave McMillan.10.1007/978-1-137-36831-7_7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, T., Playfoot, D., Wray, A., & Wright, M. J. (2015). Establishing the reliability of word association data for investigating individual and group differences. Applied Linguistics, 36(1), 23–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1975). The language of thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1989). Psychosemantics: The Problem of Meaning in the Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Francis, H. (1972). Toward an explanation of the syntagmatic-paradigmatic shift. Child Development, 43(3), 949–958.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galton, F. (1879). Psychometric experiments. Brain, 2(2), 149–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greidanus, T., & Nienhuis, L. (2001). Testing the quality of word knowledge in a second language by means of word associations: types of distractors and types of associations. Modern Language Journal, 85(4), 567–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, T. L., Steyvers, M., & Firl, A. (2007). Google and the mind. Psychological Science, 18(12), 1069–1076.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruenenfelder, T. M., Recchia, G., Rubin, T., & Jones, M. N. (2016). Graph-theoretic properties of networks based on word association norms: Implications for models of lexical semantic memory. Cognitive Science, 40(6), 1460–1495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guida, A., & Lenci, A. (2007). Semantic properties of word associations to Italian verbs. Italian Journal of Linguistics, 19(2), 293–326.Google Scholar
Hahn, L. W., & Sivley, R. M. (2011). Entropy, semantic relatedness and proximity. Behavior Research Methods, 43(3), 746–760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Håkansson, G., & Norrby, C. E. (2010). Environmental influence on language acquisition: Comparing second and foreign language acquisition of Swedish. Language Learning, 60(3), 628–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henriksen, B. (2008). Declarative lexical knowledge. In Albrechtsen, D., Haastrup, K., & Henriksen, B. (Eds.), Vocabulary and writing in a first and second language (pp. 22–66). New York, NY: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higginbotham, G. M. (2010). Individual learner profiles from word association tests: The effect of word frequency. System, 38(3), 379–390.10.1016/j.system.2010.06.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoey, M. (2005). Lexical priming: A new theory of words and language. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Horiba, Y. (2012). Word knowledge and its relation to text comprehension: A comparative study of Chinese-and Korean-speaking L2 learners and L1 speakers of Japanese. Modern Language Journal, 96(1), 108–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hui, L. (2011). An investigation into the L2 mental lexicon of Chinese English learners by means of word association. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 34(1), 62–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchison, K. A. (2003). Is semantic priming due to association strength or feature overlap? A microanalytic review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 10(4), 785–813.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, R. L., Hoffman, P., Pobric, G., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2015). The nature and neural correlates of semantic association versus conceptual similarity. Cerebral Cortex, 25(11), 4319–4333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jiang, N., & Zhang, J. (2019). Form prominence in the L2 lexicon: Further evidence from word association. Second Language Research, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658319827053Google Scholar
Jung, C. G. (1910). The association method. American Journal of Psychology, 31, 219–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, B. (2018). Collocation and word association: Comparing collocation measuring methods. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 23(1), 85–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kent, G. H., & Rosanoff, A. J. (1910). A study of association in insanity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 67(1), 37–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khazaeenezhad, B., & Alibabaee, A. (2013). Investigating the role of L2 language proficiency in word association behavior of L2 learners: a case of Iranian EFL learners. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(1), 108–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, M. S. (2013). The mental lexicon of low-proficiency Korean heritage learners. Heritage Language Journal, 10(1), 17–35.Google Scholar
Kiss, G. R. (1968). Words, associations, and networks. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 7, 707–713.10.1016/S0022-5371(68)80130-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiss, G. R., Armstrong, C., Milroy, R., & Piper, J. (1973). An associative thesaurus of English and its computer analysis. In Aitkin, A. J., Bailey, R. W., & Hamilton-Smith, N. (Eds.), The computer and literary studies (pp. 153–165). Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. (1963). Interlingual word associations. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2(4), 291–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroll, J. F., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations. Journal of Memory and Language, 33(2), 149–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruse, H., Pankhurst, J., & Sharwood Smith, M. (1987). A multiple word association probe in second language acquisition research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9(2), 141–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, W. E. (1956). Developmental aspects of second-language acquisition: I. Associational fluency, stimulus provocativeness, and word-order influence. The Journal of Social Psychology, 43(1), 83–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, D., Zhang, X., & Wang, G. (2011). Senior Chinese high school students’ awareness of thematic and taxonomic relations in L1 and L2. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14(4), 444–457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacWhinney, B. (2005). A unified model of language acquisition. In de Groot, A. M. B., & Kroll, J. F. (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism (pp. 49–67). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, A. (2007). The representation of object concepts in the brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGee, I. (2009). Adjective-noun collocations in elicited and corpus data: Similarities, differences, and the whys and wherefores. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 5(1), 79–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McRae, K., Khalkhali, S., & Hare, M. (2012). Semantic and associative relations in adolescents and young adults: examining a tenuous dichotomy. In Reyna, V. F., Chapman, S. B., Dougherty, M. R., & Confrey, J. (Eds.), The adolescent brain: Learning, reasoning, and decision making (pp. 39–66). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meara, P. (1978). Learners’ word associations in French. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin, 3(2), 192–211.Google Scholar
Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teaching and Linquistics Abstracts, 13(3–4), 221–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meara, P. (1983). Word associations in a foreign language. Nottingham Linguistic Circular, 11, 28–38.Google Scholar
Meara, P. M. (1996a). The vocabulary knowledge framework. Unpublished discussion paper available at http://www.lognostics.co.uk/vlibrary/index.htmGoogle Scholar
Meara, P. (1996b). Dimensions of lexical competence. In Brown, G., Malmkjaer, K., & Williams, J. (Eds.), Performance and competence in second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Meara, P. (2006). Emergent properties of multilingual lexicons. Applied Linguistics, 27(4), 620–644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meara, P. (2007). Simulating word associations in an L2: The effects of structural complexity. Language Forum, 33(2), 13–31.Google Scholar
Meara, P. (2009). Connected words: Word associations and second language vocabulary acquisition. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meara, P., & Wolter, B. (2004). V_Links: Beyond vocabulary depth. Angles on the English Speaking World, 4, 85–96.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J. (2019). Comparison of the lexical networks of blind and sighted individuals: A preliminary investigation. M.A. Dissertation. Swansea University.Google Scholar
Milgram, S. (1967). The small world problem. Psychology Today, 1(1), 61–67.Google Scholar
Mollin, S. (2009). Combining corpus linguistic and psychological data on word co-occurrences: Corpus collocates versus word associations. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 5(2), 175–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morais, A. S., Olsson, H., & Schooler, L. J. (2013). Mapping the structure of semantic memory. Cognitive Science, 37(1), 125–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mulder, K., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2011). Linguistic skills of adult native speakers, as a function of age and level of education. Applied Linguistics, 32(5), 475–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munby, I. (2011). Development of a multiple response word association test for learners of English as an L2 (Ph.D. dissertation). Swansea University.Google Scholar
Munby, I. (2018). Report on a free continuous word association test (part 3). HOKUGA, 175, 53–75.Google Scholar
Namei, S. (2004). Bilingual lexical development: A Persian–Swedish word association study. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 14(3), 363–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (1990). Teaching and learning vocabulary. New York, NY: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, D. L., McEvoy, C. L., & Schreiber, T. A. (2004). The University of South Florida free association, rhyme, and word fragment norms. Behavior Research Methods, 36(3), 402–407.Google ScholarPubMed
Nelson, K. (1977). The syntagmatic-paradigmatic shift revisited: A review of research and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 84(1), 93–116.10.1037/0033-2909.84.1.93CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nissen, H. B., & Henriksen, B. (2006). Word class influence on word association test results. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 389–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nordquist, D. (2009). Investigating elicited data from a usage-based perspective. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 5(1), 105–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norrby, C. E., & Håkansson, G. (2007). Girl – lass or curl? Word associations in second language learners. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 30(2), 22.1–22.17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Connor, J. (1928). Born that way. Baltimore, MD: The Willia.Google Scholar
Orita, M. (2002). Word associations of Japanese EFL learners and native speakers: Shifts in response type distribution and the associative development of individual words. Review of English Language Education in Japan, 13, 111–120.Google Scholar
Osgood, C. E., Sebeok, T. A., Gardner, J. W., Carroll, J. B., Newmark, L. D., Ervin, S. M., … Lounsbury, F. G. (1954). Psycholinguistics: A survey of theory and research problems. Baltimore, MD: Waverly Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Palermo, D. S. (1971). Characteristics of word association responses obtained from children in grades one through four. Developmental Psychology, 5(1), 118–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Playfoot, D., Balint, T., Pandya, V., Parkes, A., Peters, M., & Richards, S. (2016). Are word association responses really the first words that come to mind? Applied Linguistics, 39(5), 607–624.Google Scholar
Politzer, R. L. (1978). Paradigmatic and syntagmatic associations of first year French students. In Honsa, V., & Hardman-de-Bautista, M. (Eds.), Papers in linguistics and child language: Ruth Hirsch Weir memorial volume (pp. 203–210). Den Haag, Netherlands: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Postman, L. J. & Keppel, G. (1970). Norms of word association. New York, NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Prior, A., & Bentin, S. (2003). Incidental formation of episodic associations: The importance of sentential context. Memory & Cognition, 31(2), 306–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prior, A., & Bentin, S. (2008). Word associations are formed incidentally during sentential semantic integration. Acta Psychologica, 127(1), 57–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qian, D. D. (2002). Investigating the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and academic reading performance: An assessment perspective. Language Learning, 52(3), 513–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Qian, D. D., & Schedl, M. (2004). Evaluation of an in-depth vocabulary knowledge measure for assessing reading performance. Language Testing, 21(1), 28–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Racine, J. P., Higginbotham, G. M., & Munby, I. (2014). Exploring non-native norms: A new direction in word association research. Vocabulary Education Research Bulletin, 3(2), 28–52.Google Scholar
Randall, M. (1980). Word association behaviour in learners of English as a foreign language. Polyglot, 2(2), B5–D1.Google Scholar
Read, J. (1993). The development of a new measure of L2 vocabulary knowledge. Language Testing, 10(3), 355–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Read, J. (1995). Refining the word associates format as a measure of depth of vocabulary knowledge. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics, 1, 1–17.Google Scholar
Read, J. (1998). Validating a test to measure depth of vocabulary knowledge. In Kunnan, A. J. (Ed.), Validation in language assessment (pp. 41–60). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richards, J. C. (1976). The role of vocabulary teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 10(1), 77–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riegel, K. F., Ramsey, R. M., & Riegel, R. M. (1967). A comparison of the first and second languages of American and Spanish students. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6(4), 536–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riegel, K. F., & Zivian, I. W. M. (1972). A study of inter- and intralingual associations in English and German. Language Learning, 22(1), 51–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenzweig, M. R. (1961). Comparisons among word-association responses in English, French, German, and Italian. The American Journal of Psychology, 74(3), 347–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roux, P. W. (2013). Words in the mind: Exploring the relationship between word association and lexical development. Polyglossia, 24, 80–91.Google Scholar
Rüke-Dravina, V. (1971). Word associations in monolingual and multilingual individuals. Linguistics, 9(74), 66–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, W. A., & Jenkins, J. J. (1954). The complete Minnesota norms for responses to 100 words from the Kent-Rosanoff Word Association Test. Technical Report No. 11, University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
Santos, A., Chaigneau, S. E., Simmons, W. K., & Barsalou, L. W. (2011). Property generation reflects word association and situated simulation. Language and Cognition, 3(1), 83–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N. (1998a). Quantifying word association responses: What is nativelike? System, 26(3), 389–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N. (1998b). Tracking the incremental acquisition of second language vocabulary: A longitudinal study. Language Learning, 48(2), 281–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N., Nation, P., & Kremmel, B. (2020). Moving the field of vocabulary assessment forward: The need for more rigorous test development and validation. Language Teaching, 53(1), 109–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N., Ng, J. W. C., & Garras, J. (2011). The word associates format: Validation evidence. Language Testing, 28(1), 105–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoonen, R., & Verhallen, M. (2008). The assessment of deep word knowledge in young first and second language learners. Language Testing, 25(2), 211–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schrijnemakers, J. M. C., & Raaijmakers, J. G. W. (1997). Adding new word associations to semantic memory: Evidence for two interactive learning components. Acta Psychologica, 96(1–2), 103–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schur, E. (2007). Insights into the structure of L1 and L2 vocabulary networks: intimations of small worlds. In Daller, H., Milton, J., & Treffers-Daller, J. (Eds.), Modelling and assessing vocabulary knowledge (pp. 182–203). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmons, W. K., Hamann, S. B., Harenski, C. L., Hu, X. P., & Barsalou, L. W. (2008). FMRI evidence for word association and situated simulation in conceptual processing. Journal of Physiology – Paris, 102(1–3), 106–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singleton, D. M. (1999). Exploring the second language mental lexicon. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Söderman, T. (1993). Word associations of foreign language learners and native speakers – different response types and their relevance to lexical development. In Hammarberg, B. (Ed.), Problem, Process, Product in Language Learning: Papers from the Stockholm-Abo Conference, 21–22 October 1992, Stockholm, Sweden:. 157–169.Google Scholar
Sommer, R. (1901). Diagnostik Der Geisteskrankheiten Für Praktische Ärzte Und Studierende [Diagnosis Of Mental Illness For Practical Physicians And Students]. Berlin/Wien: Urban & Schwarzenberg.Google Scholar
Steyvers, M., Shiffrin, R. M., & Nelson, D. L. (2004). Word association spaces for predicting semantic similarity effects in episodic memory. In Healy, A. (Ed.), Experimental cognitive psychology and its applications: Festschrift in honor of Lyle Bourne, Walter Kintsch, and Thomas Landauer (pp. 237–249). American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Steyvers, M., & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2005). The large-scale structure of semantic networks: Statistical analyses and a model of semantic growth. Cognitive Science, 29(1), 41–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stolz, S., & Tiffany, J. (1972). The production of ‘child-like’ word associations by adults to unfamiliar adjectives. Journal of Verbal Learning and Behaviour, 11(1), 38–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strogatz, S. H. (2001). Exploring complex networks. Nature, 410(6825), 268–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suzuki-Parker, J., & Higginbotham, G. (2019). Does method of administration influence word association test responses? Vocabulary Education Research Bulletin, 8(1), 11–16.Google Scholar
Taylor, I. (1976). Similarity between French and English words: A factor to be considered in bilingual language behaviour? Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5(197), 85–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thumb, A., & Marbe, K. (1901). Experimentelle Untersuchungen Über Die Psychologischen Grundlagen Der Sprachlichen Analogiebildung [Experimental Studies On the Psychological Foundations of Linguistic Analogy Creation]. Leipzig, Germany: W. Engelmann.Google Scholar
Thwaites, P. (2019). Lexical and distributional influences on word association response generation (Ph.D. Dissertation). Cardiff University.Google Scholar
van Hell, J. G., & de Groot, A. M. B. (1998). Conceptual representation in bilingual memory: Effects of concreteness and cognate status in word association. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(3), 193–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Loon-Vervoorn, W. A. (1989). Eigenschappen van Basiswoorden [Properties of basic words]. Lisse, Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.Google Scholar
Van Rensbergen, B., De Deyne, S., & Storms, G. (2016). Estimating affective word covariates using word association data. Behavior Research Methods, 48(4), 1644–1652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Rensbergen, B., Storms, G., & De Deyne, S. (2015). Examining assortativity in the mental lexicon: Evidence from word associations. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(6), 1717–1724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vivas, L., Manoiloff, L., Garcia, A. M., Lizarralde, F., & Vivas, J. (2018). Core semantic links or lexical associations: Assessing the nature of responses in word association tasks. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 48(1), 243–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, H. C. (1916). Mental association from Plato to Hume. Psychological Review, 23(3), 208–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warriner, A. B., Kuperman, V., & Brysbaert, M. (2013). Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas. Behavior Research Methods, 45(4), 1191–1207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watts, D. J., & Strogatz, S. H. (1998). Collective dynamics of ‘small-world’ networks. Nature, 393(6684), 440–442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wettler, M., Rapp, R., & Sedlmeier, P. (2005). Free word associations correspond to contiguities between words in texts. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 12(2–3), 111–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilks, C. (2009). Tangled webs…: Complications in the exploration of L2 lexical networks. In Fitzpatrick, T., & Barfield, A. (Eds.), Lexical processing in second language learners: Studies in honour of Paul Meara (pp. 25–37). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilks, C., & Meara, P. (2002). Untangling word webs: Graph theory and the notion of density in second language word association networks. Second Language Research, 18(4), 303–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilks, C., & Meara, P. (2007). Implementing graph theory approaches to the exploration of density and structure in L1 and L2 word association networks. In Daller, H., Milton, J., & Treffers-Daller, J. (Eds.), Modelling and assessing vocabulary knowledge (pp. 167–181). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilks, C., Meara, P., & Wolter, B. (2005). A further note on simulating word association behaviour in a second language. Second Language Research, 21(4), 359–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolter, B. (2001). Comparing the L1 and L2 mental lexicon: A depth of individual word knowledge model. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23(1), 41–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolter, B. (2002). Assessing proficiency through word associations: Is there still hope? System, 30(3), 315–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodrow, H., & Lowell, F. (1916). Children's association frequency tables. The Psychological Monographs, 22, 5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodworth, R. S. (1938). Experimental psychology. New York, NY: Henry Holt & Co.Google Scholar
Wray, A. (2002). Formulaic language and the lexicon. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yap, M. J., Tan, S. E., Pexman, P. M., & Hargreaves, I. S. (2011). Is more always better? Effects of semantic richness on lexical decision, speeded pronunciation, and semantic classification. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(4), 742–750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yokokawa, H., Yabuuchi, S., Kadota, S., Nakanishi, Y., & Noro, T. (2002). Lexical networks in L2 mental lexicon: Evidence from a word-association task for Japanese EFL learners. Language Education and Technology, 39, 21–39.Google Scholar
Yu, X., Xu, Z., & Sun, L. (2011). On Chinese EFL learners’ homonym processing in relation to their organization of L2 mental lexicon. International Journal of English Linguistics, 1(2), 40–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zareva, A. (2005). Models of lexical knowledge assessment of second language learners of English at higher levels of language proficiency. System, 33(4), 547–562.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zareva, A. (2007). Structure of the second language mental lexicon: How does it compare to native speakers’ lexical organization? Second Language Research, 23(2), 123–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zareva, A. (2010). Multicompetence and L2 users’ associative links: Being unlike nativelike. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 20(1), 2–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zareva, A. (2011). Effects of lexical class and word frequency on L1 and L2 English-based lexical connections. The Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, 1(2), 1–17.Google Scholar
Zareva, A. (2012). Partial word knowledge: frontier words in the L2 mental lexicon. IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 50(4), 277–301.Google Scholar
Zareva, A., Schwanenflugel, P. J., & Nikolova, Y. (2005). Relationship between lexical competence and language proficiency: Variable sensitivity. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(4), 567–595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zareva, A., & Wolter, B. (2012). The ‘promise’ of three methods of word association analysis to L2 lexical research. Second Language Research, 28(1), 41–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, D., & Koda, K. (2017). Assessing L2 vocabulary depth with word associates format tests: Issues, findings, and suggestions. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 2(1), 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar