Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T03:00:29.985Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Overseas Chinese Remittance Firms, the Limits of State Sovereignty, and Transnational Capitalism in East and Southeast Asia, 1850s–1930s

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 December 2014

Get access

Abstract

In the mid-nineteenth century, a group of overseas Chinese businessmen created a private international remittance network linking the southeastern littoral zone of the Qing empire with the colonies of mainland and archipelagic Southeast Asia. Holding together this transnational network were Qiaopiju remittance firms that succeeded in controlling the remittance trade not by relying on traditional forms of economic organization or behavior, but by pioneering a unique combination of capitalist profit-making strategies, culturalist customer services, and flexible interfirm relations. The organizational structure and business practices of Qiaopiju allowed them to successfully adapt to and negotiate with the emerging regulatory regimes of the nation-state, colonial, and capitalist world systems in order to dominate the international remittance industry for more than a century.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Note: All archival citations should be read: SHAC-catalog number, file number, sub-file number.

Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1911. Enclosure No. 2: Memorandum: Xinke and Their Operations, District Postmaster J. Tweedie, 3 February 1911. SHAC-137.2015.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1919. Enclosure in Shanghai Despatch No. 4200 of 1919 to Co-D.G., Memorandum by Woo Yih Ching, Acting Deputy Commissioner of Shanghai, 4 March 1919. SHAC-137.2013.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1921. “Postal Law” as Enclosure to Circular No. 507, Officiating Co-Director General, temporarily C. Rousse, 1 November 1921. SHAC-137.2024-5.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1922. Translation of a letter from representatives of the Minju of Zhenjiang as Enclosure No. 2 to Jiangsu Despatch No. 2521/3665 of 1922 to Co-Director General. SHAC-137.2014.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1926a. Petition from the Chinese Chamber of Commerce, Singapore, 12 November 1926, as Enclosure to Ministry's Xunling No. 1460, 3 December 1926. SHAC-137.5164.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1926b. Translation of Ministry's Xunling No. 1503, 11 December 1926. SHAC-137.2015.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927a. Ministry's Xunling No. 464, 25 April 1927. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927b. Translation of Cheng No. 97 to the Ministry of Communications, May 1927. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927c. Enclosure to Fuzhou-Co.-D.G. Memo No. 2534/12216 of 1927 – Rough translation of despatch of 2 August 1927 from the Xiamen General Labor Union. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927d. Memo. No. 4833/8106, Xiamen Acting Deputy Postal Commissioner to Fujian Postal Commissioner, 5 August 1927. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927e. Enclosure to Fuzhou-Co.-D.G. Memo. No. 2649-12652 of 1927 – Letter from the Acting Deputy Commissioner to the Fuzhou Commissioner. SHAC-137.2014.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927f. Memo. No. 2605/12494, Fujian Postal Commissioner V. W. Stapleton-Cotton, 24 October 1927. SHAC-137.5287.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927g. Note re: Minju at Xiamen as Enclosure to Fujian Memo No. 2605/12494. SHAC-137.5287.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927h. Memorandum No. 12652/2649: Minju, Fuzhou Postal Commissioner Stapleton-Cotton to Co-Director General Destelan, 8 December 1927. SHAC-137.2014.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928a. Circular Memo No. 13, First Secretary Huang Naishu, 12 July 1928. SHAC-137.288-3.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928b. Zhaolu youzhengsi han 照錄郵政司函 [Copy of a letter from the head of the postal department], 6 August 1928. SHAC-137.7791.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928c. Gesheng shanghui lianhehui zongshiwu suo kuai you daidian zongzi di 236 hao 各省商會聯合會總事務所快郵代電總字第 236 號 [The all-provincial union of chambers of commerce, general affairs office, postal telegram no. 236], 21 August 1928. SHAC-137.7791.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928d. Zhaolu Guomin zhengfu Jiaotongbu xunling di 902 hao 照錄國民政府交通部訓令第 902 號 [Copy of order no. 902 from the Ministry of Communications of the national government], 24 August 1928. SHAC-137.7791.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928e. No. 110/13746, Fujian Postal Commissioner W. Stapleton-Cotton to Director General Liu Shufan, 12 September 1928. SHAC-137.7876.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1929. Letter from Mr. Lin Yishun 林義順 to the Ministry of 7 June 1929; Jiaotongbu xunling di 1208 hao, Jiaotongbu zhang Wang Boqun, 24 April 1929 交通部訓令第 1208 號, 交通部長王伯群 [Ministry of communications, instruction no. 1208, Minister of Communications Wang Boqun]. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1930. Zanxing Minju guahao lingzhao banfa 暫行民局掛號領照辦法 [Provisional regulations for Minju registered licenses], as attachment to Circular Memo No. 520, Director General Wei Yifu, 29 September 1930. SHAC-137.6272-5.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1931. Shantou duannei yi guahao minju biao 汕頭段內已掛號民局表 [Table of registered Minju in the Shantou section], April 1931. SHAC-137.1811-4.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1933. Jiaotongbu youzheng zongju tongchi di 1205 hao, daili youzheng zongban Tang Baoshu 交通部郵政總局通飭第 1205 號, 代理郵政總辦唐寶書 [Ministry of communications, directorate general of posts, circular memo no. 1205], 8 December 1933. SHAC-137.7553-2.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1936. Zhang Jixi shicha qiaohui baogao 張繼錫視察僑匯報告 [Report on overseas Chinese remittances by inspector Zhang Jixi], 4 December 1936. SHAC-127(2).123.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1938. Report by S. K. Fong, Remittances from Overseas Chinese: An Outline Concerning the Causes of the Inauguration of the Service and Its Present Condition, 14 March 1938. SHAC-127(2).123.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1946a. Fujian youqu sa-wu nianfen ge Pixinju zong fenhao qingce 福建郵區卅五年份各批信局總分號清冊 [List of the head and branch Pixinju in the Fujian postal district for the thirty-fifth year (1946)]. SHAC-137.6367.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1946b. Guangdong youqu sanshiwu nianfen ge Pixinju zong fenhao qingce 廣東郵區三十五年份各批信局總分號清冊 [List of the head and branch Pixinju in the Guangdong postal district for the thirty-fifth year (1946)]. SHAC-137.6368.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). [n.d.]. Remittance Business in Annam. SHAC-127(2).442.Google Scholar
An. 1867. “Postal Arrangements.” Notes and Queries: On China and Japan, March 31, 30.Google Scholar
Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Rev. ed. New York: Verso.Google Scholar
Bank of Taiwan. [1914] 1993. Overseas Chinese Remittances in the 1910s. In Overseas Chinese Remittances from Southeast Asia, 1910–1940, ed. George, Hicks, 3110. Singapore: Select Books.Google Scholar
Blussé, Leonard. 2011. “Junks to Java: Chinese Shipping to the Nanyang in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century.” In Chinese Circulations: Capital, Commodities, and Networks in Southeast Asia, eds. Tagliacozzo, Eric and Wen-Chin, Chang, 221–58. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Chen, Chunsheng 陳春聲. 2000. “Jindai Huaqiao huikuan yu Qiaopi ye de jingying: Yi Chao-Shan diqu de yanjiu wei zhongxin” 近代華僑匯款与僑批業的經營: 以潮汕地區的研究為中心 [Modern overseas Chinese remittances and the business of the Qiaopi industry in the Chaozhou-Shantou area]. Zhongguo shehui jingji shi yanjiu 4:5766.Google Scholar
Dai, Yifeng 戴一峰. 2003. “Wangluohua qiye yu qianru xing: Jindai Qiaopiju de zhidu jiangou (1850s–1940s)” 網絡化企業与嵌入性: 近代僑批局的制度建構 [Networked enterprises and their embedded nature: The system structure of modern Qiaopiju]. Zhongguo shehui jingji shi yanjiu 1:7078.Google Scholar
Dai, Yifeng 戴一峰. 2004. “Chuantong yu xiandai: Jindai Zhongguo qiye zhidu bianqian de zai Sikao—Yi Qiaopiju yu yinhang guanxi wei zhongxin” 傳統与現代: 近代中國企業制度變遷的再思考—以僑批局与銀行關係為中心 [Tradition and modernity: Rethinking fluctuation in the Chinese enterprise system based on the relationship between Qiaopiju and banks]. Zhongguo shehui jingji shi yanjiu 1:6573.Google Scholar
Frost, Mark Ravinder. 2004. “Asia's Maritime Networks and the Colonial Public Sphere, 1840–1920.” New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 6(2):6394.Google Scholar
Goodman, Byrna. 1995. Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853–1937. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, Susan. 1994. “De-Orientalizing the Chinese Family Firm.” American Ethnologist 21(4):742–71.Google Scholar
Guomin zhengfu jiaotong bu mishu chu 國民政府交通部秘書處, ed. 1928. Quanguo jiaotong huiyi huibian 全國交通會議彙編 [Proceedings of the national communications conference]. Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan.Google Scholar
Gützlaff, Charles. 1833. The Journal of Two Voyages along the Coast of China, in 1831, & 1832. New York: John P. Haven.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Gary G. 1989. “Patterns of Asian Capitalism: The Cases of Taiwan and South Korea.” Program in East Asian Culture and Development Research Working Paper Series, No. 28, Institute of Government Affairs, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar
Harris, Lane J. 2012. “The Post Office and State Formation in Modern China, 1896–1949.” PhD diss., University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Headrick, Daniel R., and Griset, Pascal. 2001. “Submarine Telegraph Cables: Business and Politics, 1838–1939.” Business History Review 75(3):543–78.Google Scholar
Hsu, Madeline Y. 2000. Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration between the United States and South China, 1882–1943. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Qinghai, Huang 黃清海, ed. 1996. Minnan qiaopi shi jishu 閩南僑批史記述 [Historical records on southern Fujian qiaopi]. Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar
Yanhua, Huang 黃燕華. 2006. “Huiqiao huikuan dui jindai Chao-Shan diqu nongye yu nongcun shehui de yingxiang” 華僑匯款對近代潮汕地區農業与農村社會的影響 [The influence of overseas Chinese remittances on agricultural industry and village society in the Chao-Shan area]. Huanan nongye daxue xuebao: Shehui kexue ban 5(3):104–9.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Inspectorate General of Customs. 1892. Decennial Reports on the Trade, Navigation, Industries, Etc. of the Ports Open to Foreign Commerce in China and Corea and the Condition and Development of the Treaty Port Provinces, 1882–1891. 3 vols. Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs.Google Scholar
Inspectorate General of Customs. 1904. Decennial Reports on the Trade, Navigation, Industries, Etc. of the Ports Open to Foreign Commerce in China and Corea and the Condition and Development of the Treaty Port Provinces, 1892–1901. 2 vols. Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs.Google Scholar
Jiao, Jianhua 焦建華. 2005a. “Jindai Pixinju tese tanyuan: Yi Fujian weili” 近代批信局特色探: 以福建為例 [Exploring the core characteristics of the modern Pixinju in Fujian]. Fujian luntan 5:7881.Google Scholar
Jiao, Jianhua 焦建華. 2005b. “Zhidu chuangxin yu wenhua chuantong: Shixi jindai Pixinju de jingying zhidu” 制度創新与文化傳統: 試析近代批信局的經營制度 [System innovation and cultural tradition: An examination and analysis of the modern Pixinju business model]. Zhongguo shehui jingji shi yanjiu 3:6470.Google Scholar
Jiaotong tiedao bu jiaotong shi bianzuan weiyuanhui 交通鐵道部交通史編纂委員會, ed. 1930. Jiaotong shi youzheng bian 交通史郵政編 [Communications history: The post office]. 4 vols. Nanjing: Jiaotongbu zongwusi.Google Scholar
Legislative Department, Government of India. 1876. The Unrepealed General Acts of the Governor General in Council, with Chronological Table, vol. 2. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing.Google Scholar
Liu, Guangsheng 劉廣生. 1986. Zhongguo gudai youyi shi 中國古代郵驛史 [History of post stations in ancient China]. Beijing: Renmin youdian chubanshe.Google Scholar
Martin, Marina. 2009. “Hundi/Hawala: The Problem of Definition.” Modern Asian Studies 43(4):909–37.Google Scholar
Maxwell, William George comp. 1905. The Laws of Perak from the 11th September, 1877, to the 31st December, 1903, vol. 1. Kuala Lumpur: F.M.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Newbold, T. J. 1839. Political and Statistical Account of the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca, viz. Pinang, Malacca, and Singapore; with a History of the Malayan States on the Peninsula of Malacca. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
Peng, Yingtian 彭瀛添. 1992. Minxinju fazhan shi: Zhongguo de minjian tongxun shiye 民信局發展史: 中國的民間通訊事業 [A history of the expansion of people's letter offices: China's popular communications enterprise]. Taibei: Zhongguo wenhua daxue chubanbu.Google Scholar
Postal Act of Siam.” 1906. In Siam: Its Posts and Postage Stamps, ed. Melville, Fred J., 2025. London: Offices of the Stamp Collectors' Fortnightly.Google Scholar
Raffles, Thomas Stamford. 1817. The History of Java. 2 vols. London: Black, Parbury, and Allen.Google Scholar
Redding, S. Gordon. 1990. The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Redding, S. Gordon. 1991. “Weak Organizations and Strong Linkages: Managerial Ideology and Chinese Family Business Networks.” In Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, ed. Hamilton, Gary, 3047. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Remer, C. F. 1933. Foreign Investments in China. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration. 1885. Report of the Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration: Report and Evidence. Ottawa: Printed by order of the Commission.Google Scholar
Rui, Yixun 芮詒塤. 1987. “Youxin yinzhuang (piju) suoyi” 有信銀莊(批局)瑣憶 [Trivial memories of the Youxin Money Shop (Piju)]. Shantou wenshi 4. http://www.chaorenwang.com/channel/qpwhyj/showdontai.asp?nos=825 (accessed September 30, 2014).Google Scholar
Scott, James C. 1998. Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Siah, U. C. 1847. “Annual Remittances by Chinese Immigrants in Singapore to Their Families in China.” Journal of the Indian Archipelago and East Asia 1:3536.Google Scholar
The Siamese Postal Service during the years 1891–1895.” 1896. L'Union Postale 21(9):137–43.Google Scholar
Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser. 1893. April 10.Google Scholar
Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser. 1926. November 13.Google Scholar
Singapore Times Overland Journal. 1871. January 18.Google Scholar
State of Pahang. 1900. Enactments Passed in Council in 1899. Kuala Lumpur: Selangor Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Straits Observer. 1876. December 20.Google Scholar
Straits Times. 1877. August 4.Google Scholar
Straits Times. 1927. April 11.Google Scholar
Straits Times Overland Journal. 1876. December 27.Google Scholar
Straits Times Overland Journal. 1877. January 11.Google Scholar
Susanto, A. B., and Susanto, Patricia. 2013. The Dragon Network: Inside Stories of the Most Successful Chinese Family Businesses. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Tantasuroek, Suchādā. 1992. Poeykwan: The Remittance among Overseas Chinese in Thailand. Bangkok: Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University.Google Scholar
Thongchai, Winichakul. 1994. Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-body of a Nation. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.Google Scholar
Universal Postal Union. 1925. Convention of Stockholm (August 28, 1924): Together with the Detailed Regulations for Its Execution. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Wang, Boqun 王伯群. 1929. “Jiaotongbu xunling di 1248 hao, Jiaotongbu zhang Wang Boqun” 交通部訓令第 1248 號, 交通部長王伯群 [Ministry of Communications, instruction no. 1248, Minister of Communications Wang Boqun]. Jiaotong gongbao 35:34.Google Scholar
Weidenbaum, Murray, and Hughes, Samuel. 1996. The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs Are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Wong, Lin Ken. 1980. “The Chinese in Nineteenth-Century Singapore: A Review of Lee Poh Ping's Chinese Society in Nineteenth-Century Singapore.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 11(1):151–86.Google Scholar
Wong, Siu-Lun. 1991. “Chinese Entrepreneurs and Business Trust.” In Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, ed. Gary, Hamilton, 1329. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Wu, Chun-Hsi. 1967. Dollars, Dependents and Dogma: Overseas Chinese Remittances to Communist China. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institute on War, Revolution, and Peace.Google Scholar
Yang, Qunxi 楊群熙. 2004. Chao-Shan diqu Qiaopi ye ziliao 潮汕地區僑批業資料 [Materials on the Qiaopi industry in the Chaozhou-Shantou area]. Shantou: Chao-Shan lishi wenhua yanjiu zhongxin, Shantou shi wenhua ju, Shantou shu tushuguan.Google Scholar
Hui, Zheng 鄭揮. 2003. “Minxinju zhaoshi de lishi beijing he tiaojian” 民信局肇事的歷史背景和條件 [The historical background to the establishment of the Minxinju]. You shi yanjiu 22:1421.Google Scholar
Ketang, Zheng 鄭克堂. 1930. “Nanyang Minxinju cunfei wenti” 南洋民信局存廢問題 [Questions about the survival of the South Seas Minxinju]. Zhongyang qiaowu yuekan 7–8:3740.Google Scholar
Linkuan, Zheng 鄭林寬. [1940] 1988. Fujian Huaqiao huikuan 福建華僑匯款 [Remittances from overseas Fujianese]. Oakton, Va.: Center for Chinese Research Materials.Google Scholar
Zhuang, Guotu 裝國土. 1989. Zhongguo fengjian zhengfu de huaqiao zhengce 中國封建政府的華僑政策 [The policies of China's feudal governments towards overseas Chinese]. Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1911. Enclosure No. 2: Memorandum: Xinke and Their Operations, District Postmaster J. Tweedie, 3 February 1911. SHAC-137.2015.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1919. Enclosure in Shanghai Despatch No. 4200 of 1919 to Co-D.G., Memorandum by Woo Yih Ching, Acting Deputy Commissioner of Shanghai, 4 March 1919. SHAC-137.2013.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1921. “Postal Law” as Enclosure to Circular No. 507, Officiating Co-Director General, temporarily C. Rousse, 1 November 1921. SHAC-137.2024-5.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1922. Translation of a letter from representatives of the Minju of Zhenjiang as Enclosure No. 2 to Jiangsu Despatch No. 2521/3665 of 1922 to Co-Director General. SHAC-137.2014.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1926a. Petition from the Chinese Chamber of Commerce, Singapore, 12 November 1926, as Enclosure to Ministry's Xunling No. 1460, 3 December 1926. SHAC-137.5164.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1926b. Translation of Ministry's Xunling No. 1503, 11 December 1926. SHAC-137.2015.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927a. Ministry's Xunling No. 464, 25 April 1927. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927b. Translation of Cheng No. 97 to the Ministry of Communications, May 1927. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927c. Enclosure to Fuzhou-Co.-D.G. Memo No. 2534/12216 of 1927 – Rough translation of despatch of 2 August 1927 from the Xiamen General Labor Union. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927d. Memo. No. 4833/8106, Xiamen Acting Deputy Postal Commissioner to Fujian Postal Commissioner, 5 August 1927. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927e. Enclosure to Fuzhou-Co.-D.G. Memo. No. 2649-12652 of 1927 – Letter from the Acting Deputy Commissioner to the Fuzhou Commissioner. SHAC-137.2014.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927f. Memo. No. 2605/12494, Fujian Postal Commissioner V. W. Stapleton-Cotton, 24 October 1927. SHAC-137.5287.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927g. Note re: Minju at Xiamen as Enclosure to Fujian Memo No. 2605/12494. SHAC-137.5287.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1927h. Memorandum No. 12652/2649: Minju, Fuzhou Postal Commissioner Stapleton-Cotton to Co-Director General Destelan, 8 December 1927. SHAC-137.2014.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928a. Circular Memo No. 13, First Secretary Huang Naishu, 12 July 1928. SHAC-137.288-3.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928b. Zhaolu youzhengsi han 照錄郵政司函 [Copy of a letter from the head of the postal department], 6 August 1928. SHAC-137.7791.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928c. Gesheng shanghui lianhehui zongshiwu suo kuai you daidian zongzi di 236 hao 各省商會聯合會總事務所快郵代電總字第 236 號 [The all-provincial union of chambers of commerce, general affairs office, postal telegram no. 236], 21 August 1928. SHAC-137.7791.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928d. Zhaolu Guomin zhengfu Jiaotongbu xunling di 902 hao 照錄國民政府交通部訓令第 902 號 [Copy of order no. 902 from the Ministry of Communications of the national government], 24 August 1928. SHAC-137.7791.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1928e. No. 110/13746, Fujian Postal Commissioner W. Stapleton-Cotton to Director General Liu Shufan, 12 September 1928. SHAC-137.7876.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1929. Letter from Mr. Lin Yishun 林義順 to the Ministry of 7 June 1929; Jiaotongbu xunling di 1208 hao, Jiaotongbu zhang Wang Boqun, 24 April 1929 交通部訓令第 1208 號, 交通部長王伯群 [Ministry of communications, instruction no. 1208, Minister of Communications Wang Boqun]. SHAC-137.1187.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1930. Zanxing Minju guahao lingzhao banfa 暫行民局掛號領照辦法 [Provisional regulations for Minju registered licenses], as attachment to Circular Memo No. 520, Director General Wei Yifu, 29 September 1930. SHAC-137.6272-5.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1931. Shantou duannei yi guahao minju biao 汕頭段內已掛號民局表 [Table of registered Minju in the Shantou section], April 1931. SHAC-137.1811-4.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1933. Jiaotongbu youzheng zongju tongchi di 1205 hao, daili youzheng zongban Tang Baoshu 交通部郵政總局通飭第 1205 號, 代理郵政總辦唐寶書 [Ministry of communications, directorate general of posts, circular memo no. 1205], 8 December 1933. SHAC-137.7553-2.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1936. Zhang Jixi shicha qiaohui baogao 張繼錫視察僑匯報告 [Report on overseas Chinese remittances by inspector Zhang Jixi], 4 December 1936. SHAC-127(2).123.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1938. Report by S. K. Fong, Remittances from Overseas Chinese: An Outline Concerning the Causes of the Inauguration of the Service and Its Present Condition, 14 March 1938. SHAC-127(2).123.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1946a. Fujian youqu sa-wu nianfen ge Pixinju zong fenhao qingce 福建郵區卅五年份各批信局總分號清冊 [List of the head and branch Pixinju in the Fujian postal district for the thirty-fifth year (1946)]. SHAC-137.6367.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). 1946b. Guangdong youqu sanshiwu nianfen ge Pixinju zong fenhao qingce 廣東郵區三十五年份各批信局總分號清冊 [List of the head and branch Pixinju in the Guangdong postal district for the thirty-fifth year (1946)]. SHAC-137.6368.Google Scholar
Second Historical Archives of China, Nanjing (SHAC). [n.d.]. Remittance Business in Annam. SHAC-127(2).442.Google Scholar
An. 1867. “Postal Arrangements.” Notes and Queries: On China and Japan, March 31, 30.Google Scholar
Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Rev. ed. New York: Verso.Google Scholar
Bank of Taiwan. [1914] 1993. Overseas Chinese Remittances in the 1910s. In Overseas Chinese Remittances from Southeast Asia, 1910–1940, ed. George, Hicks, 3110. Singapore: Select Books.Google Scholar
Blussé, Leonard. 2011. “Junks to Java: Chinese Shipping to the Nanyang in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century.” In Chinese Circulations: Capital, Commodities, and Networks in Southeast Asia, eds. Tagliacozzo, Eric and Wen-Chin, Chang, 221–58. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Chen, Chunsheng 陳春聲. 2000. “Jindai Huaqiao huikuan yu Qiaopi ye de jingying: Yi Chao-Shan diqu de yanjiu wei zhongxin” 近代華僑匯款与僑批業的經營: 以潮汕地區的研究為中心 [Modern overseas Chinese remittances and the business of the Qiaopi industry in the Chaozhou-Shantou area]. Zhongguo shehui jingji shi yanjiu 4:5766.Google Scholar
Dai, Yifeng 戴一峰. 2003. “Wangluohua qiye yu qianru xing: Jindai Qiaopiju de zhidu jiangou (1850s–1940s)” 網絡化企業与嵌入性: 近代僑批局的制度建構 [Networked enterprises and their embedded nature: The system structure of modern Qiaopiju]. Zhongguo shehui jingji shi yanjiu 1:7078.Google Scholar
Dai, Yifeng 戴一峰. 2004. “Chuantong yu xiandai: Jindai Zhongguo qiye zhidu bianqian de zai Sikao—Yi Qiaopiju yu yinhang guanxi wei zhongxin” 傳統与現代: 近代中國企業制度變遷的再思考—以僑批局与銀行關係為中心 [Tradition and modernity: Rethinking fluctuation in the Chinese enterprise system based on the relationship between Qiaopiju and banks]. Zhongguo shehui jingji shi yanjiu 1:6573.Google Scholar
Frost, Mark Ravinder. 2004. “Asia's Maritime Networks and the Colonial Public Sphere, 1840–1920.” New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 6(2):6394.Google Scholar
Goodman, Byrna. 1995. Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853–1937. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, Susan. 1994. “De-Orientalizing the Chinese Family Firm.” American Ethnologist 21(4):742–71.Google Scholar
Guomin zhengfu jiaotong bu mishu chu 國民政府交通部秘書處, ed. 1928. Quanguo jiaotong huiyi huibian 全國交通會議彙編 [Proceedings of the national communications conference]. Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan.Google Scholar
Gützlaff, Charles. 1833. The Journal of Two Voyages along the Coast of China, in 1831, & 1832. New York: John P. Haven.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Gary G. 1989. “Patterns of Asian Capitalism: The Cases of Taiwan and South Korea.” Program in East Asian Culture and Development Research Working Paper Series, No. 28, Institute of Government Affairs, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar
Harris, Lane J. 2012. “The Post Office and State Formation in Modern China, 1896–1949.” PhD diss., University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Headrick, Daniel R., and Griset, Pascal. 2001. “Submarine Telegraph Cables: Business and Politics, 1838–1939.” Business History Review 75(3):543–78.Google Scholar
Hsu, Madeline Y. 2000. Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration between the United States and South China, 1882–1943. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Qinghai, Huang 黃清海, ed. 1996. Minnan qiaopi shi jishu 閩南僑批史記述 [Historical records on southern Fujian qiaopi]. Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar
Yanhua, Huang 黃燕華. 2006. “Huiqiao huikuan dui jindai Chao-Shan diqu nongye yu nongcun shehui de yingxiang” 華僑匯款對近代潮汕地區農業与農村社會的影響 [The influence of overseas Chinese remittances on agricultural industry and village society in the Chao-Shan area]. Huanan nongye daxue xuebao: Shehui kexue ban 5(3):104–9.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Inspectorate General of Customs. 1892. Decennial Reports on the Trade, Navigation, Industries, Etc. of the Ports Open to Foreign Commerce in China and Corea and the Condition and Development of the Treaty Port Provinces, 1882–1891. 3 vols. Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs.Google Scholar
Inspectorate General of Customs. 1904. Decennial Reports on the Trade, Navigation, Industries, Etc. of the Ports Open to Foreign Commerce in China and Corea and the Condition and Development of the Treaty Port Provinces, 1892–1901. 2 vols. Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs.Google Scholar
Jiao, Jianhua 焦建華. 2005a. “Jindai Pixinju tese tanyuan: Yi Fujian weili” 近代批信局特色探: 以福建為例 [Exploring the core characteristics of the modern Pixinju in Fujian]. Fujian luntan 5:7881.Google Scholar
Jiao, Jianhua 焦建華. 2005b. “Zhidu chuangxin yu wenhua chuantong: Shixi jindai Pixinju de jingying zhidu” 制度創新与文化傳統: 試析近代批信局的經營制度 [System innovation and cultural tradition: An examination and analysis of the modern Pixinju business model]. Zhongguo shehui jingji shi yanjiu 3:6470.Google Scholar
Jiaotong tiedao bu jiaotong shi bianzuan weiyuanhui 交通鐵道部交通史編纂委員會, ed. 1930. Jiaotong shi youzheng bian 交通史郵政編 [Communications history: The post office]. 4 vols. Nanjing: Jiaotongbu zongwusi.Google Scholar
Legislative Department, Government of India. 1876. The Unrepealed General Acts of the Governor General in Council, with Chronological Table, vol. 2. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing.Google Scholar
Liu, Guangsheng 劉廣生. 1986. Zhongguo gudai youyi shi 中國古代郵驛史 [History of post stations in ancient China]. Beijing: Renmin youdian chubanshe.Google Scholar
Martin, Marina. 2009. “Hundi/Hawala: The Problem of Definition.” Modern Asian Studies 43(4):909–37.Google Scholar
Maxwell, William George comp. 1905. The Laws of Perak from the 11th September, 1877, to the 31st December, 1903, vol. 1. Kuala Lumpur: F.M.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Newbold, T. J. 1839. Political and Statistical Account of the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca, viz. Pinang, Malacca, and Singapore; with a History of the Malayan States on the Peninsula of Malacca. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
Peng, Yingtian 彭瀛添. 1992. Minxinju fazhan shi: Zhongguo de minjian tongxun shiye 民信局發展史: 中國的民間通訊事業 [A history of the expansion of people's letter offices: China's popular communications enterprise]. Taibei: Zhongguo wenhua daxue chubanbu.Google Scholar
Postal Act of Siam.” 1906. In Siam: Its Posts and Postage Stamps, ed. Melville, Fred J., 2025. London: Offices of the Stamp Collectors' Fortnightly.Google Scholar
Raffles, Thomas Stamford. 1817. The History of Java. 2 vols. London: Black, Parbury, and Allen.Google Scholar
Redding, S. Gordon. 1990. The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Redding, S. Gordon. 1991. “Weak Organizations and Strong Linkages: Managerial Ideology and Chinese Family Business Networks.” In Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, ed. Hamilton, Gary, 3047. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Remer, C. F. 1933. Foreign Investments in China. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration. 1885. Report of the Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration: Report and Evidence. Ottawa: Printed by order of the Commission.Google Scholar
Rui, Yixun 芮詒塤. 1987. “Youxin yinzhuang (piju) suoyi” 有信銀莊(批局)瑣憶 [Trivial memories of the Youxin Money Shop (Piju)]. Shantou wenshi 4. http://www.chaorenwang.com/channel/qpwhyj/showdontai.asp?nos=825 (accessed September 30, 2014).Google Scholar
Scott, James C. 1998. Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Siah, U. C. 1847. “Annual Remittances by Chinese Immigrants in Singapore to Their Families in China.” Journal of the Indian Archipelago and East Asia 1:3536.Google Scholar
The Siamese Postal Service during the years 1891–1895.” 1896. L'Union Postale 21(9):137–43.Google Scholar
Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser. 1893. April 10.Google Scholar
Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser. 1926. November 13.Google Scholar
Singapore Times Overland Journal. 1871. January 18.Google Scholar
State of Pahang. 1900. Enactments Passed in Council in 1899. Kuala Lumpur: Selangor Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Straits Observer. 1876. December 20.Google Scholar
Straits Times. 1877. August 4.Google Scholar
Straits Times. 1927. April 11.Google Scholar
Straits Times Overland Journal. 1876. December 27.Google Scholar
Straits Times Overland Journal. 1877. January 11.Google Scholar
Susanto, A. B., and Susanto, Patricia. 2013. The Dragon Network: Inside Stories of the Most Successful Chinese Family Businesses. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Tantasuroek, Suchādā. 1992. Poeykwan: The Remittance among Overseas Chinese in Thailand. Bangkok: Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University.Google Scholar
Thongchai, Winichakul. 1994. Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-body of a Nation. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.Google Scholar
Universal Postal Union. 1925. Convention of Stockholm (August 28, 1924): Together with the Detailed Regulations for Its Execution. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Wang, Boqun 王伯群. 1929. “Jiaotongbu xunling di 1248 hao, Jiaotongbu zhang Wang Boqun” 交通部訓令第 1248 號, 交通部長王伯群 [Ministry of Communications, instruction no. 1248, Minister of Communications Wang Boqun]. Jiaotong gongbao 35:34.Google Scholar
Weidenbaum, Murray, and Hughes, Samuel. 1996. The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs Are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Wong, Lin Ken. 1980. “The Chinese in Nineteenth-Century Singapore: A Review of Lee Poh Ping's Chinese Society in Nineteenth-Century Singapore.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 11(1):151–86.Google Scholar
Wong, Siu-Lun. 1991. “Chinese Entrepreneurs and Business Trust.” In Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, ed. Gary, Hamilton, 1329. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Wu, Chun-Hsi. 1967. Dollars, Dependents and Dogma: Overseas Chinese Remittances to Communist China. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institute on War, Revolution, and Peace.Google Scholar
Yang, Qunxi 楊群熙. 2004. Chao-Shan diqu Qiaopi ye ziliao 潮汕地區僑批業資料 [Materials on the Qiaopi industry in the Chaozhou-Shantou area]. Shantou: Chao-Shan lishi wenhua yanjiu zhongxin, Shantou shi wenhua ju, Shantou shu tushuguan.Google Scholar
Hui, Zheng 鄭揮. 2003. “Minxinju zhaoshi de lishi beijing he tiaojian” 民信局肇事的歷史背景和條件 [The historical background to the establishment of the Minxinju]. You shi yanjiu 22:1421.Google Scholar
Ketang, Zheng 鄭克堂. 1930. “Nanyang Minxinju cunfei wenti” 南洋民信局存廢問題 [Questions about the survival of the South Seas Minxinju]. Zhongyang qiaowu yuekan 7–8:3740.Google Scholar
Linkuan, Zheng 鄭林寬. [1940] 1988. Fujian Huaqiao huikuan 福建華僑匯款 [Remittances from overseas Fujianese]. Oakton, Va.: Center for Chinese Research Materials.Google Scholar
Zhuang, Guotu 裝國土. 1989. Zhongguo fengjian zhengfu de huaqiao zhengce 中國封建政府的華僑政策 [The policies of China's feudal governments towards overseas Chinese]. Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar