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A Survey of Recent Results in the Radiocarbon Chronology of Westers and Northern Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2009

Frank Willett
Frank Willett
Affiliation:
Northwestern University, U.S.A.
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Extract

This paper is the first in a series summarizing, for the benefit of historians and archaeologists from other areas, the latest developments in radiocarbon dating for the later prehistory of western and northern Africa. These articles will appear every two years, alternating with similar surveys of eastern and southern Africa. A selection of more than 200 dates from those not previously published in this Journal is discussed, and dates obtained by thermoluminescence are quoted for the first time. It should be emphasized that most of the dates included are published in advance of full reports which are being prepared by the archaeologists concerned. The conclusions reached are therefore provisional and may well require modification in the light of a fuller examination of the related archaeological data.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 12 , Issue 3 , July 1971 , pp. 339 - 370
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1971

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References

1 Gabriel, Camps, Delibrias, G. and Thommeret, J., ‘Chronologie absolue et succession des civilisations préhistoriques dans le Nord de l'Afrique’, Libyca, XVI (1968), 9–28.Google Scholar (Discusses 116 dates referring to prehistoric North Africa and the Sahara, II dates referring to preislasnic or historical age monuments and 22 dates of geological sediments which are of archaeological interest and in addition 17 dates from Cyrenaica, mainly the Haua Fteah cave, and six dates from Munson's sites in Mauritania which are discussed later.) Gabriel, Camps, ‘Tableau chronologique de la préhistoire récente du Nord de 1'Afrique, premiè;re synthèse des datations absolues obtenues par le carbone 14’, Bull. Soc. Préhist. Fr. LXV (1968), 609–22.Google Scholar (This article lists the same dates as the preceding one but with different discussion.) Thurstan, Shaw, ‘Radiocarbon dating in Nigeria’, J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, IV, pt. 3 (1968), 453–65.Google Scholar (This lists, from Nigeria alone, dates of geological features, 28 of pre-Iron Age deposits, and 40 from the Iron Age.) Ibid. ‘On radiocarbon chronology of the Iron Age in sub-Saharan Africa’, Current Anthropology, x, nos. 2–3 (04–06 1969), 226–9. (Lists 48 Iron Age dates from Nigeria and 9 from Chad.) David, Calvocoressi and Richard, York, ‘The state of archaeological research in Ghana’, West African J. Archaeology, I (in the press). (Lists z Stone Age and 24 Iron Age dates.)Google Scholar

2 A very readable general account of these complications is Ralph, E. K. and H. N., Michael, ‘Problems of the radiocarbon calendar’, Archaeometry, X (1967) 3–11,CrossRefGoogle Scholar whilst Evžen, Neustupný, ‘A new epoch in radiocarbon dating’, Antiquity XLIV (1970), 38–45 provides a most valuable report on archaeological aspects of the XIIth Nobel Symposium (1969) which discussed the variations in radiocarbon concentration.Google Scholar

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6 Radiocarbon dates in this article are quoted as a date B.C. or A.D. with a standard deviation (and laboratory number when available), as the author considers to quote them as a range expressed by approximately one standard deviation, although making the text easier to read, is likely to give the impression that these are firm limits, whereas they express only the likelihood of two chances in three that the date lies somewhere within the expressed limits and nineteen chances in twenty that it lies within twice that range. Since social scientists are familiar with such expressions, and statistical studies are spread. ing within the humanities, the author prefers to retain the usual convention rather than encourage a new one used only by historians of Africa. Radiocarbon dates not previously listed are marked*. Since no thermoluminescence dates have previously been included, the indication TL implies this.

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12 Sudanic is employed here to mean ‘pertaining to the belt of savanna which stretches across Africa from East to West just south of the Sahara’, in preference to the form Sudanese which might more properly be applied to the country at the eastern end of the belt; the former French Soudan is now called Mali, so there should be no chance of confusion here in modem writing.

13 The Libyan extension of the Tassili.

14 This suite of dates from the Acacus was first published in Fabrizio, Mori, Tadrart Acacus, Turin, (1965), 234–40,Google Scholar where the laboratories only are indicated. The Geochron laboratory numbers have been supplied from Radiocarbon, VII (1965), 52, which is the authority for the form in which GX-88 is quoted. Mori gives this date with a S.D. of 175 years.Google Scholar

15 The painting is illustrated in Mori, , op. cit. 236, p1. 157. The scar had later been painted over with human figures, also of the Pastoralist Period.Google Scholar

16 The S.D. of this date is quoted as 80 years in Radiocarbon, XII (1970), 437, referring to Camps et al. 1968, which is the source I have used, since the date has not been formally published by the laboratory in Radiocarbon.Google Scholar

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23 Op. cit. 1968.

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26 Radiocarbon, x (1968), 481.Google Scholar

27 Camps, G. (1968), 616.Google Scholar

28 In a paper presented on Dec. 1970 to a Seminar on Settlement Patterns and Urbanization at the London Institute of Archaeology, Desmond Clark reported that ‘Dates for the Ténérian are still being received, but from those so far available, it appears to have existed for some seven hundred years, perhaps longer (3190–2490 B.C.)’.

29 See Mateu, J., ‘Nouvelles datations du Néolithique au Sahara algérien par la methode du C14’, Bull. I.F.A.N. sér. B, XXX, no. 2 (1968), 439–43.Google Scholar

30 See Roubet, F.-E., ‘Nouvelles gravures rupestres du sud de l'Atlas saharien (Station du Méandre, près de Brezina)’, Libyca, xv (1967), 167–205.Google Scholar

31 In Camps, Delibrias, and Thommeret, , op. cit. 27.Google Scholar

32 ‘Découverte d'outillage lithique en stratigraphie à Thiès, Sénégal’, Bull. Liaison, ASEQUA XXIII–XXIV (11 1969), 57–63.Google Scholar

33 It should be noted that thermoluminescence dates have, of their nature, to be based on a single measurement. The possible error expressed is thus not calculated from several measurements of the same sample but an expression of the limits of error in measurement and calculation. In the dates from the Oxford Laboratory quoted below, the S.D. is about 15 per cent of the age expressed, i.e. there is a probability of 2 to 1 that the true age lies within 15 per cent and of 20 to 1 that it lies within 30 per cent of the age calculated, i.e. unlike radiocarbon dates the standard deviation is directly proportional to the age of the sample.

34 Coon, C. S., Yengema Cave Report, University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (1968), 67.Google Scholar A brief account of the site appeared in Expedition, XI, no. I (Fall 1968), 46,Google Scholar and a summary of the Report by Thurstan, Shaw is in The West Afritan Archaeological Newsletter, VI (1967), 25–7.Google Scholar

35 Illustrated in J. Afr. Hist. XI, no. 3 (1970), 310, Fig. I.Google Scholar

36 John, Atherton, ‘Excavations at Kamabai and Yangala rock shelters, Sierra Leone’, West Afr. J. Archaeology, II. (Not yet published. I am very grateful to the author for supplying a copy of this article in advance of publication.)Google Scholar

37 I am very grateful to Cohn Flight who kindly supplied the information on which this section is based. Preliminary reports will be found in: Res. Rev., Institute of African Studies, Legon, III, no. 3 (1967), 72–6; IV, no. 2 (1968), 105–7Google Scholar and The West African Archaeological Newsletter, XII (1970), 71–3.Google Scholar

38 Birm-29, and Birm-31 are from samples of seed-husks consisting almost entirely of carbonate; the laboratory therefore notes that they may be too old, but they do correspond satisfactorily to the other dates, which are from charcoal.

39 David, Calvocoressi, COWA Surveys and Bibliographies West Africa, Area II, no. IV (1969), 7.Google Scholar

40 I am very grateful to Mr de Bayle des Hermens for this information and his comment which I have translated. See also Vidal, P., ‘La civilisation mégalithique de Bouar. Prospections et fouiles 1962–1966’, Recherches Oubangiennes I, Firmin Didot, Etudes, Paris (1969).Google Scholar

41 J. Afr. Hist., x, no. I, (1969), 151.Google Scholar

42 Ibid. 152.

43 West African Archaeological Newsletter, XII (1970), 60–3 and 91–2.Google Scholar

44 Th., Monod and Mauny, R., ‘Découverte de nouveaux instruments en os dans l'Ouest Africain’, Third Pan-African Congress on Prehistory, Livingstone 1955, ed. Clark, J. Desmond and Sonia, Cole, (London 1957), 243–5.Google Scholar

45 Raymond Mauny writes (letter to the author, 27 Oct. 1970) that ‘harpoons in bone (and even one in wood), hooks and celts in bone have recently been excavated in shell quarries near St. Louis-du-Sénégal by Mlle. A. Ravizé’. From this site comes the date *Dak-6: A.D. 197 ± 113. ‘But I cannot affirm that the bone industry is of the same age.’

46 Wrongly quoted as A.D. 680 in List VI.

47 See Graham, Connah, ‘Radiocarbon dates for Benin City and further dates for Daima, N.E. Nigerja’, J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, IV, no. 2 (1968), 313–20, especially p. 317.Google Scholar

48 Tamera, M. A. and Pearson, F. J., ‘Validity of radiocarbon dates on bone’, Nature, no. 5015 (1965), 1053–5.Google Scholar

49 Bernard, Fagg, ‘Recent work in West Africa: new light on the Nok Culture,’ World Archaeology, I, no. I (06 1969), 41–50.Google Scholar These dates from Taruga should be compared with one recently obtained from the Jemaa head: TL 510±220 or TL 600±230, Fagg, B. E. B. and Fleming, S. J., ‘Thermoluminescent dating of a terracotta of the Nok culture, Nigeria’ Archaeometry, XII (I) (1970), 53–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

50 Letter to the author, 18 Aug. 1970. In a further communication she mentions that ‘figurine fragments, iron objects, stone beads and polished stone axes were juxtaposed amongst a mêlée of domestic pottery’.

51 Coined by William Fagg for the phase of overlapping of stone and iron technologies by analogy with ‘chalcolithic’ formerly used in Near Eastern archaeology to describe the transitional phase from a stone to a bronze technology. See Elisofon, E. and Fagg, W. B., The Sculpture of Africa London (1958), 58.Google Scholar

52 Thurstan, Shaw, ‘Archaeology in Nigeria’, Antiquity, XLIII (1969), 193. A similar view had earlier been expressed by Connah; see reference quoted in footnote 47.Google Scholar

53 Raymond, Mauny, ‘Essai sur l'histoire des métaux en Afrique occidentale’, Bull. I.F.A.N. XIV (1952), 574–83.Google Scholar

54 Bernard, Fagg in ‘An outline of the Stone Age of the Plateau Minesfield’, Proc. Third International West African Conference, Ibadan 1949 (Lagos, 1956), 18, wrote: ‘Tin beads have been found at Nok but I have not yet found them in situ myself, though I consider it likely that some of these belong to the figurine culture and will eventually be found to be evidence of the great antiquity of the native tin-mining industry.’Google Scholar

55 Actes du colloque international d'archéologie africaine (Fort Lamy, Décembre 1966)Google ScholarEtudes et Documents Tchadiens, Travaux et Mémoires, I, Fort Lamy et Paris 1969 (1970), 234–41;Google Scholar Dr Lebeuf informs me that the following items, still in the press, list further dates: Carte archéologique des Abords du lac Tchad (Cameroun, Nigeria, Tchad), Editions du Centre National de Ia Recherche Scientifique, Paris 1969 (?09 1970),Google Scholar and with Mme Lebeuf: ‘Datations au C14 de sites sao (Cameroun et Tchad)’, Bull. I.F.A.N. (? late 1970). This is a complete list.Google Scholar

56 Incompletely quoted as ‘Sao’ mound in List VI, J. Afr. Hist. x (1969), 150.Google Scholar

57 Information of the dates from the Dakar laboratory has kindly been supplied by Raymond Mauny (letter of 27 Oct. 1970).

58 Compare the Taruga and the new Nok dates quoted above indicating the working of iron in that area between about 400 and 200 B.C. with the Meroe (17° 50' N, 34° 10' E) dates: Birm-97: 514± 73 B.C. Birm-98: 280±120 B.C.

59 Quoted in List v, J. Afr. Hist. VIII (1967) 517.Google Scholar Further information is given Ibid. 516/77 about the sequence, and two of the dates are incompletely quoted.

60 Quoted from Radiocarbon, x, no. I (1968)Google Scholar, where no cultural associations are indicated, but compare the papers by Luis, Diego Cuscoy, ‘Notas arqueológicas sobre El Julan (Isla de El Hierro)’, Actas del V Congreso Panafricano de Prehistoria y de Estudia del Cuaternario, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 1965, 43–52;Google Scholar F. E. Zeuner, ‘Summary of the cultural problems of the Canary Islands’, Ibid. 277–88; and the earlier survey by Cuscoy, L. Diego, ‘Armas de madera y vestido del aborigen de las Islas Canarias,’ Actes du IVe Congrès Panafricain de Préhistoire et de l'Etude du Quaternaire, Tervuren, 1962, 487–505 where he writes: ‘Tenerife … la única isla de Canarias … que conserva intacto hasta el siglo XV su patrimonio prehistórico de clara raíz neolitica’, 497.Google Scholar

61 I am greatly indebted to Mme Lambert for her kindness in sending me a copy of her paper ‘Exploitation minière et métallurgie protohistoriques du cuivre au Sahara Occidental’ which she prepared for the African Studies Association meeting at Montreal in October 1969.

62 Radiocarbon, xii (1970), 436.Google Scholar

63 Ibid. 356.

64 Camps, G., ‘Une date absolue de monument funéraire proto-historique le tumulus de Oued Montana (Ferkane)’, Libyca, XII (1964), 298–9.Google Scholar The date is given by the laboratory as A.D. I±150; Radiocarbon, VIII (1966), 87.Google Scholar

65 Listed as Garamantes, Grave in Radiocarbon, x, no. I (1968), 24.Google Scholar

66 Radiocarbon, XII, no. 2 (1970), 356.Google Scholar

67 Ibid. 356.

68 Ibid. 437.

69 Ibid. 439.

70 *Dak–14: 3082±170 B.C. was obtained from shells of Arca senilis, found with pottery in the coastal region of Senegal, but whether from this type of midden is not clear. (Information from Raymond Mauny.)

71 An account of her excavations is to appear in the first issue of the West Aft. J. Archaeology.

72 Radiocarbon, XII, no. 2 (1970), 586–7.Google Scholar

73 The first date is taken from Radiocarbon, XII, no. 2 (1970), 586.Google Scholar The second is the date given by the laboratory in Radiocarbon, XII, no. 2 (1970), 200–1.Google Scholar

74 I am grateful to Raymond Mauny for details of this date (letter of 27 Oct. 1970). Monod refers to the site in Bull. I.F.A.N., XXVI, A (1964), 1393–402.Google Scholar

75 Thurstan, Shaw, Igbo-Ukwu: An Account of Archaeological Discoveries in eastern Nigeria (London 1970) I, 278.Google Scholar

76 BM-262, M-2119.

77 Shaw, , op. cit. 1970, 1, 271–80.Google Scholar

78 Jack, Goody, ‘Silima,’ Ghana Notes and Queries, x. (1968), 30.Google Scholar

79 A general account of the site is provided by Richard, York: ‘Volta Basin Research Project Excavations at New Buipe, 1965–67,’ Ghana Notes and Queries, x (1968), 33–8. He has kindly revised this section of my MS in the light of his still unpublished conclusions.Google Scholar

80 York, loc. cit., and ‘Pottery classification: some methods and results from New Buipe,’ West African Archaeological Newsletter, VII (1967); ‘Pottery classification: further methods and results from New Buipe’, Proc. VIth Pan-African Congress on Prehistory, Dakar, 1967 (in press).Google Scholar

81 Ozanne, P. C., ‘The diffusion of smoking in West Africa,’ Odu, n.s. II (1969), 29–42.Google Scholar

82 In Calvocoressi, D., COWA Surveys and Bibliographies West Africa, Area II, no. IV (1969), 5.Google Scholar

83 The site is described in Mathewson, R. Duncan, ‘Some notes on the settlement mounds of Central Gonja,’ Res. Rev., Institute of African Studies, Legon, IV (2) (1968), 108–14.Google Scholar

84 Dates quoted from Radiocarbon, XI (1969), 269 and XII (1970), 398.Google Scholar I have been unable to find any other account of the excavation, but for the historical importance of the site see Ivor, Wilks, ‘The Northern factor in Ashanti history, Begho and the Mande,’ J. Afr. Hist. II (1961), 25–34.Google Scholar

85 Mathewson, R. D., ‘Kitare,’ West African Archaeological Newsletter, III (1965), 22–5;Google Scholar ‘The painted pottery sequence in the Volta Basin’, Ibid. VIII (1968), 24–31; ‘Kitare: an early trading centre in the Volta Basin,’ VIe Congrès Panafricain de Préhistoire, Dakar 1967 (in press).

86 Those available from both sites were reported in Lists in, IV, V, J. Afr. Hist. VI (1965), 115, VII (1966), 495, VIII (1967), 514–5.Google Scholar

87 I am very grateful to Dr Wiadyslaw Filipowiak for supplying reprints of: W. Fiipowiak, S. Jasosz and R. Wolagiewicz, ‘Polsko-gwinejskie badania archeologiczne w Niani w 1968 r.’ and its French translation: ‘Les recherches archéologiques polonoguinéennes à Niani en 1968’, Materialy Zachodniopomorskie, XIV (1968), 575–620 and 621–48Google Scholar respectively; and of W. Filipowiak, ‘Średńwieczna stolica Mali w świetle źródel pisanych, ustnych i archaeologicznych na tie zaplecza gospodarczo-politycznego’, with a French résumé: ‘La capitale du Mali au Mayan Age selon les sources écrites, orales et archéologiques, profilées sur l'arrière-front économique et politique’, Ibid. XIII (1967), 541–69 and 569–73 respectively. Readers of this Journal will probably find more accessible: Niane, D. T., ‘Note sur les fouilles de Niani, ancienne capitale du Mali,’ West African Archaeological Newsletter, XII (1970), 43–6.Google Scholar

88 List VI, J. Afr. Hist. X (1969), 153.Google Scholar

89 Antiquity, XLII (1969)Google Scholar, frontispiece. A general account of the site is: Priddy, A. J., ‘RS 63/32: An Iron Age site near Yelwa, Sokoto Province: Preliminary Report’, West African Archaeological Newsletter, XII (1970), 20–32.Google Scholar

90 Igbo-Ukwu, in Lists IV, J. of Afr. Hist. VII (1966), 496,Google Scholar and VI Ibid. x (1969), 153–4. Compare also: Thurstan, Shaw: Igbo- Ukwu: An Account of Archaeological Discoveries in eastern Nigeria (London 1970).Google Scholar

91 The British Museum dates were published in List VI, J. of Afr. Hist. x (1969), 154–5.Google Scholar

92 Letter from Ekpo Eyo to the author, Ref. TF. 36/vo1. II/96 of 28 Jul. 1970. The excavations have been described in the West African Archaeological Newsletter, XII (1970), 85–7,Google Scholar and in African Arts, III, no. 2 (1970), 44–7.Google Scholar

93 ‘A reconsideration of the Ife-Benin relationship’, J. Afr. Hist. VI (1965), 24–37.Google Scholar

94 The TL dates from Ife were measured in the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford. I am grateful to Martin Aitken and David Zimmerman for their kindness in preparing them.

95 List IV, J. Afr. Hist. VII (1966), 496.Google Scholar The excavation is described by Oliver, Myers ‘Excavations at Ife, Obameri's Shrine,’ West African Archaeological Newsletter, VI (1967), 6–7.Google Scholar

96 Though it has been published in Radiocarbon, x (1968), 344Google Scholar in the form quoted and by Fölster, H. (who collected the samples) in the Bull. Liaison. ASEQUA, XXI (1969), 32 as 2360±520 B.P.: i.e. 410±120 B.C.Google Scholar

97 For details see List VI, J. Afr. Hist. x (1969), 155. Note that N–2722 should be 1–2722, whilst the date I-2721 should read: 2630±120 years = 680 B.C. (It has been misquoted as A.D. 680 in several places.) The discrepancy of this date is confirmed from a further sample of the same sawn iroko plank: *1–3622: A.D. 1385±100.Google Scholar

98 Radiocarbon, XI (1970), 462.Google Scholar

99 SirPalmer, H. Richmond, Sudanese Memoirs, III (Lagos, 1928), 97–9.Google Scholar

100 Letter from Angela, Fagg, 18 08 1970. I am grateful for her permission to quote this date.Google Scholar

101 J. Afr. Hist. x (1969), 150.Google Scholar

102 Listed as Iaye, , Mali, in Journal of African History, VI (1965), 115/16.Google Scholar

103 The following articles have already appeared in English: Bazuin-Sira, B. J., ‘Cultural remains from Tellem caves near Pégué (Falaise de Bandiagara) Mali, West Africa,’ West African Archaeological Newsletter, x (1968), 14–15;Google ScholarFagg, W., ‘The Tellem expedition,’ West Africa, 17 09 1966, 1055;Google ScholarGlanville, E. V. and Huizinga, J., ‘Palmār dermatoglyphics of the Dogon and Peal of Mali,’ Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetemch., ser. C, VLXIX (4) (1966), 528–39;Google Scholar Glanville E. V. and Huizinga J., ‘Digital dermatoglyphics of the Dogon, Peul and Kurumba of Mali and Upper Volta’, Ibid. LXIX (5) (1966), 664–74; Glanville, E. V., ‘Perforation of the coronoid-olecranon septum: Humero-ulnar relationships in Netherlands and African populations, Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., XXVI (1) (1967), 85–92;CrossRefGoogle ScholarGlanville, E. V., ‘Sexual dimorphism in the pelvic bones of the Tellem, a medieval Negro population from the Mali Republic,’ Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetensch. Ser. C, LXX (3) (1967), 368–77;Google Scholar Glanville E. V., ‘Dermatoglyphics of the fingers and palms of the Kurumba from Upper Volta,’ Ibid. LXX (5) (1967), 535/42; Glanville, E. V., ‘Nasal shape, prognathism and adaptation in man,’ Am.J. Phys. Anthrop., XXX (1) (1969), 29–37;CrossRefGoogle ScholarHuizinga, J., ‘Reflectometry of the skin in Dogons,’ Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetensch., Ser. C, LXVIII (4) (1965), 289–96;Google Scholar Huizinga J., ‘Finger patterns and ridge counts of the Dogons,’ Ibid. LXVIII (5) (1965), 398–411; Huizinga J. and Birnie-Tellier N. F., ‘Some anthropometric data on male and female Dogons I and II. (The “harmoniously reduced male”)’, Ibid. LXIX (5) (1966), 675–95; Huizinga J. and de Vetten A. L., ‘Preliminary study of the foot of the Dogon,’ Ibid. LXX (I) (1967), 97–109; Huizinga, J., ‘The Tellem expedition,’ West Africa, 15 10 1966, 1177–9;Google ScholarHuizinga, J., Birnie-Tellier, N. F. and Glanville, E. V., ‘Description and Carbon-14 dating of Tellem cave skulls from the Mali Republic: a comparison with other Negroid groups. I and II,’ Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetensch. Ser. C, LXX (3) (1967), 338–67;Google ScholarHuizinga, J. and Glanville, E. V., ‘Vital capacity and timed vital capacity in the Kurumba from Upper Volta,’ S. Afr. J. Sci., LXIV (2) (1968), 125–33;Google ScholarHuizinga, J., ‘New physical anthropological evidence bearing on the relationships between Dogon, Kurumba and the extinct West African Tellem populations,’ Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetensch., Ser. C, LXXI (1) (1968), 16–30;Google Scholar Huizinga J., ‘Human biological observations on some African populations of the Thorn savanna belt. I and II’, Ibid. LXXI (4) (1968), 356–90; Wassing, R. S., ‘The Tellem expedition,’ West Africa, 27 08 1966, 967–9.Google Scholar

104 I am grateful to the following for kindly replying to my enquiries about radiocarbon dating: John Atherton, R. de Bayle des Hermens, R. Bedaux, James O. Bellis, J. Desmond Clark, Graham Connah, Oliver Davies, Cyr Descamps, Omotoso Eluyemi, Ekpo Eyo, Miss Angela Fagg, W. Filipowiak, Cohn Flight, J. Huizinga, Mme Nicole Lambert, J.-P. Raymond Lebeuf, Mauny, Patrick Munson, Jacques Nenquin, Francis van Noten, Peter Shinnie and Richard York.