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Big Data and “New” Global History: Global Goods and Trade Networks in Early Modern China and Europe

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2021

Manuel Perez-Garcia ,
Li Wang ,
Omar Svriz-Wucherer ,
Nadia Fernández-de-Pinedo  and
Manuel Diaz-Ordoñez
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Abstract

This paper introduces an innovative method applied to global (economic) history using the tools of digital humanities through the design and development of the GECEM Project Database (www.gecem.eu; www.gecemdatabase.eu). This novel database goes beyond the static Excel files frequently used by conventional scholarship in early modern history studies to mine new historical data through a bottom-up process and analyse the global circulation of goods, consumer behaviour, and trade networks in early modern China and Europe. Macau and Marseille, as strategic entrepôts for the redistribution of goods, serve as the main case study. This research is framed within a polycentric approach to analyse the connectivity of south Chinese and European markets with trade zones of Spain, France, South America, and the Pacific.

Keywords

global historydigital humanitiesconsumptiontrade networksChina
Type
Article
Information
Itinerario , Volume 46 , Issue 1 , April 2022 , pp. 14 - 39
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Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Research Institute for History, Leiden University

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References

Bibliography

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AGI = Archivo General de Indias, Seville, Spain.Google Scholar
AHM = Arquivo Histórico de Macau, Macau.Google Scholar
AHPM = Archivo Histórico Provincial de Murcia, Spain.Google Scholar
AHU/ CU / BB = Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino / Conselho Ultramarino /Brasil- Bahía, Lisbon, Portugal.Google Scholar
BAL = Biblioteca de Ajuda de Lisboa, Portugal.Google Scholar
FHAC = First Historical Archives of China, Beijing, China.Google Scholar
RUCL = Renmin University of China Library, Beijing, China.Google Scholar
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Aslanian, S. From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.Google Scholar
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Brewer, John. “Microhistory and the Histories of Everyday Life.” Cultural and Social History 7:1 (2010): 87–109.Google Scholar
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de Vries, Jan. “Playing with Scales: The Global and the Micro, the Macro and the Nano.” Past & Present 242: Supplement 14 (2019): 23–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Flynn, Dennis O. “Big History, Geological Accumulations, Physical Economics, and Wealth”. Asian Review of World Histories 7 (2019): 80–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Goldstone, Jack. Why Europe: The Rise of the West in World History, 1500–1850. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2008.Google Scholar
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Gruzinski, Serge. “Os mundos misturados da monarquía católica e outras connected histories.” Topoi 2:2 (2001): 175–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ibarra, Antonio. “El Mundo en una Nuez: de Calcuta y Cantón a Buenos Aires en una Época de Guerra. La Introducción de Efectos Asiáticos en los Mercados Suramericanos, 1805–1807.” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 38:3 (2020): 485–518.Google Scholar
Kantabutra, Vitit, Owens, J. B., and Solana, Ana Crespo. “Intentionally-Linked Entities: A Better Database System for Representing Social Dynamic Networks, Narrative Geographic Information and General Abstractions of Reality.” In Spatio-Temporal Narratives: Historical GIS and Global Trading Networks (1500–1800), edited by Solana, Ana Crespo, 57–78. Cambridge: Cambridge Publishing Scholars, 2014.Google Scholar
Katz, Stanley N. “Why technology matters: the humanities in the twenty-first century.” Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 30: 2 (2005): 105–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, James Z., and Campbell, Cameron D.. “China Multi-Generational Panel Dataset, Liaoning (CMGPD-LN), 1749–1909: Version 10.” ICPSR—Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research, 2010.Google Scholar
Loureiro, Rui M. “Navios, mercadorias e embalagens na rota Macau-Nagasáqui.” Revista de Cultura, Edição Internacional / Review of Culture, International Edition 24 (2007): 33–51.Google Scholar
Maddison, Angus. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Paris: OECD, 1998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ma, Debin, and Rubin, Jared. “The Paradox of Power: Principal-Agent Problems and Administrative Capacity in Imperial China (and Other Absolutist Regimes).” Journal of Comparative Economics 47:2 (1 June 2019): 277–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manning, Patrick. Big Data in History. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mostern, Ruth. “Dividing the Realm in Order to Govern”: The Spatial Organization of the Song State. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Moutoukias, Zacarias. “Instituciones, Comercio y Globalización Arcaica: una Reflexión sobre las Redes Sociales como Objeto y como Herramienta a partir del Caso Rioplatense (Siglo XVIII).” In Actores Sociales, Redes de Negocios y Corporaciones en Hispanoamérica, Siglos XVII–XIX, edited by Ibarra, Antonio, López, Alvaro Alcántara, and Jumar, Fernando Alberto, 141–82. México: UNAM/CONACyT/Bonilla Artigas, 2018.Google Scholar
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O'Brien, Patrick, and Deng, Kent. “Quantifying the Quantifiable: A Reply to Jan-Luiten van Zanden and Debin Ma.” World Economics 18:3 (2017): 215–23.Google Scholar
O'Rourke, Kevin H., and Williamson, Jeffrey G.. “Once More: When Did Globalisation Begin?” European Review of Economic History 8:1 (2004): 109–17.Google Scholar
Panzac, Daniel. La caravane maritime. Marins européens et marchands ottomans en Méditerranée (1680–1830). París: CNRS, 2004.Google Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel. “Consumption of Chinese Goods in Southwestern Europe: A Multi-Relational Database and the Vicarious Consumption Theory as Alternative Model to the Industrious Revolution (Eighteenth Century).” Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History 52:1 (2019): 15–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel. “Creating Global Demand: Polycentric Approaches, Crossroads of Silk and Silver in China and Iberian Empires during the Early Modern Era.” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 38:3 (2020): 405–19.Google Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel. “Global Goods, Silver and Market Integration: Consumption of Wine, Silk and Porcelain through the Grill Company via Macao-Canton and Marseille Trade Nodes, 18th century.” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 38:3 (2020): 449–84.Google Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel. Global History with Chinese Characteristics. Autocratic States along the Silk Road in the Decline of the Spanish and Qing Empires 1680–1796. Palgrave Studies in Comparative Global History. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.Google Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel, and de Sousa, Lucio. Global History and New Polycentric Approaches. Palgrave Studies in Comparative Global History. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pomeranz, Kenneth. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puschmann, Cornelius, Bastos, Marco, and Larivière, Vincent. “How Digital Are the Digital Humanities? An Analysis of Two Scholarly Blogging Platforms.” PLOS ONE 10:2 (2015).Google ScholarPubMed
Reinert, Sophus A., and Fredona, Robert. “Merchants and the Origins of Capitalism.” Harvard Business School Working Paper 18–021. Harvard Business School, 2017: 1–38. https://econpapers.repec.org/paper/hbswpaper/18-021.htm.Google Scholar
Revel, Jacques. Jeux d’échelles. La micro-analyse à l'expérience. Paris: Gallimard et Le Seuil, coll. Hautes Études, 1996.Google Scholar
Riello, Giorgio, and Roy, Tirthankar. “Introduction: Global Economic History, 1500–2000.” In Global Economic History, edited by Riello, Giorgio and Roy, Tirthankar, 1–15. London: Bloomsbury, 2018.Google Scholar
Sena, T. “In Search of Another Japan: Jesuit Motivation Towards Continental Southeast Asia in the Early 17th Century.” Revista de Cultura, Edição Internacional / Review of Culture / International Edition 52 (2016): 23–45.Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, S. “Holding the World in Balance: The Connected Histories of the Iberian Overseas Empires, 1500–1640.” American Historical Review 112: 5 (2007): 1359–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svriz-Wucherer, Omar. Resistencia y Negociación. Milicias Guaraníes, Jesuitas y Cambios Socioeconómicos en la Frontera del Imperio Global Hispánico: ss. XVII-XVIII. Rosario: Prohistoria Ediciones, 2019.Google Scholar
Teixeira, Manuel. Macau no séc. XVIII. Macau: Imprensa Nacional de Macau, 1984.Google Scholar
Terras, Melissa, Nyhan, Julianne, and Vanhoutte, Edward. Defining Digital Humanities: A Reader. London: Routledge, 2013.Google Scholar
Trivellato, Francesca. The Familiarity of Strangers: The Sephardic Diaspora, Livorno, and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Van Doosselaere, Quentin. Commercial Agreements and Social Dynamics in Medieval Genoa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Videira Pires, B. A vida marítima de Macau no século XVIII. Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau, Museu Marítimo de Macau, 1993.Google Scholar
Vries, Peer. State, Economy and the Great Divergence: Great Britain and China, 1680s–1850s. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015.Google Scholar
Wanguo, L., and Ying, H.. “A Summary of the Academic Seminar in Digital Resource Construction and Knowledge Service in 2017.” Journal of Academic Library 36:1 (2018): 12–17.Google Scholar
Wong, Roy Bin. China Transformed. Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Yun-Casalilla, Bartolomé. Iberian World Empires and the Globalization of Europe 1415–1668. Palgrave Studies in Comparative Global History. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ACCM = Archive de la Chambre de Commerce de Marseille, France.Google Scholar
AGI = Archivo General de Indias, Seville, Spain.Google Scholar
AHM = Arquivo Histórico de Macau, Macau.Google Scholar
AHPM = Archivo Histórico Provincial de Murcia, Spain.Google Scholar
AHU/ CU / BB = Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino / Conselho Ultramarino /Brasil- Bahía, Lisbon, Portugal.Google Scholar
BAL = Biblioteca de Ajuda de Lisboa, Portugal.Google Scholar
FHAC = First Historical Archives of China, Beijing, China.Google Scholar
RUCL = Renmin University of China Library, Beijing, China.Google Scholar
Feng Gui Fen, , “Kangxi Gazetteer of Suzhou, vol. 21. (1691).” Jiangsu Suzhou Gazetteers. Taibei: Chengwen Publishing House, 1970.Google Scholar
Phoenix Publishing House, ed., “Qianlong Yuanhe County Gazetteer, Vol. 36. (1761).” Collection of Chinese Local Gazetteers. Nanjing: Phoenix Publishing House, 2008.Google Scholar
Portillo, Bernabé. “Memorial escrito por Don Bernabé Portillo, residente en Madrid, sobre el problema propuesto por la sociedad acerca de la decadencia de las manufacturas de seda en esta ciudad, y medios de su restablecimiento mas breve.” In Memorias de la Real Sociedad Patriótica de Sevilla, Sevilla: Imprenta Vazquez, Hidalgo y Compañía, Impresores de la Real Sociedad, 1779.Google Scholar
Yuanmei, , Qianlong Period Jiangning New Gazetteers, vol. 26 (1748). Nanjing: Nanjing Publishing House, 2013.Google Scholar
Alden, D. The Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, Its Empire, and Beyond, 1540–1750. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, Robert C., et al. “Wages, Prices, and Living Standards in China, 1738–1925: In Comparison with Europe, Japan, and India.” Economic History Review 64:1 (2011): 8–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Benedict. “Cacique Democracy and the Philippines: Origins and Dreams.” New Left Review 1:169 (May–June 1988): 3–31.Google Scholar
Aslanian, S. From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Beites Manso, M. “Missionários ou ricos mercadores? O comercio da seda entre o Japao e Macau nos séculos XVI e XVII.” Revista de Cultura, Edição Internacional / Review of Culture, International Edition 42 (2013): 105–13.Google Scholar
Belich, James, et al. , eds. The Prospect of Global History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Berg, Maxine. “Sea Otters and Iron: A Global Microhistory of Value and Exchange at Nootka Sound, 1774–1792.” Past & Present 242: Supplement 14 (2019): 50–82.Google Scholar
Boxer, Charles R. “The Manila Galleon 1565–1815: The Lure of Silk and Silver.” History Today 8 (1958): 538–47.Google Scholar
Boxer, Charles R. O grande navio de Amacau. 4° Edition. Translated by Vilarinho, Manuel. Macau: Fundaçao Oriente, Museu e Centro de Estudios Maritimos de Macau, 1989.Google Scholar
Brewer, John. “Microhistory and the Histories of Everyday Life.” Cultural and Social History 7:1 (2010): 87–109.Google Scholar
Broadberry, Stephen, et al. “China, Europe, and the Great Divergence: A Study in Historical National Accounting, 980–1850.” The Journal of Economic History 78:4 (2018): 955–1000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadberry, Stephen, et al. British Economic Growth: 1270–1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Burbank, J., and Cooper, F.. Imperios. Una nueva visión de la Historia Universal. Translated by Rabasseda, Juan and de Lozoya, Teófilo. Barcelona: Crítica, 2011.Google Scholar
Campbell, C., and Lee, J.. “A Death in the Family: Household Structure and Mortality in Rural Liaoning, Life-Event and Time-Series Analysis, 1792–1867.” The History of the Family: An International Quarterly 1:3 (1996): 297–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaunu, Pierre. Les Philippines et le Pacifique des Ibériques. 2 vols. Paris: Sevpen, 1960.Google Scholar
Cox, Gary W. “Political Institutions, Economic Liberty, and the Great Divergence.” Journal of Economic History 77:3 (2017): 724–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dedieu, Jean-Pierre, et al. “Navigocorpus: A Database for Shipping Information, a Methodological and Technical Introduction.” International Journal of Maritime History 23:2 (2011): 241–62.Google Scholar
de Vries, Jan. “Playing with Scales: The Global and the Micro, the Macro and the Nano.” Past & Present 242: Supplement 14 (2019): 23–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duchesne, Ricardo. The Uniqueness of Western Civilization. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernández de Pinedo Fernández, Emiliano. “Comercio colonial y semiperiferización de la monarquía hispana en la segunda mitad del siglo XVII.” Áreas. Revista Internacional de Ciencias Sociales 1986: 121–35.Google Scholar
Flynn, Dennis O. “Big History, Geological Accumulations, Physical Economics, and Wealth”. Asian Review of World Histories 7 (2019): 80–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, Kathleen, and Gold, Matthew K.. “The Humanities, Done Digitally, Debates in the Digital Humanities.” In Debates in the Digital Humanities, edited by Gold, Matthew K., 12–15. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, Ander Gunder. Re-Orient. Global Economy in the Asian Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldstone, Jack. Why Europe: The Rise of the West in World History, 1500–1850. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2008.Google Scholar
González de Arce, José Damián. El Negocio Fiscal en la Sevilla del Siglo XV. El Almojarifazgo Mayor y las Compañías de Arrendatarios. Sevilla: Diputación de Sevilla, 2017.Google Scholar
Gruzinski, Serge. “Os mundos misturados da monarquía católica e outras connected histories.” Topoi 2:2 (2001): 175–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ibarra, Antonio. “El Mundo en una Nuez: de Calcuta y Cantón a Buenos Aires en una Época de Guerra. La Introducción de Efectos Asiáticos en los Mercados Suramericanos, 1805–1807.” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 38:3 (2020): 485–518.Google Scholar
Kantabutra, Vitit, Owens, J. B., and Solana, Ana Crespo. “Intentionally-Linked Entities: A Better Database System for Representing Social Dynamic Networks, Narrative Geographic Information and General Abstractions of Reality.” In Spatio-Temporal Narratives: Historical GIS and Global Trading Networks (1500–1800), edited by Solana, Ana Crespo, 57–78. Cambridge: Cambridge Publishing Scholars, 2014.Google Scholar
Katz, Stanley N. “Why technology matters: the humanities in the twenty-first century.” Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 30: 2 (2005): 105–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, James Z., and Campbell, Cameron D.. “China Multi-Generational Panel Dataset, Liaoning (CMGPD-LN), 1749–1909: Version 10.” ICPSR—Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research, 2010.Google Scholar
Loureiro, Rui M. “Navios, mercadorias e embalagens na rota Macau-Nagasáqui.” Revista de Cultura, Edição Internacional / Review of Culture, International Edition 24 (2007): 33–51.Google Scholar
Maddison, Angus. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Paris: OECD, 1998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ma, Debin, and Rubin, Jared. “The Paradox of Power: Principal-Agent Problems and Administrative Capacity in Imperial China (and Other Absolutist Regimes).” Journal of Comparative Economics 47:2 (1 June 2019): 277–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manning, Patrick. Big Data in History. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mostern, Ruth. “Dividing the Realm in Order to Govern”: The Spatial Organization of the Song State. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Moutoukias, Zacarias. “Instituciones, Comercio y Globalización Arcaica: una Reflexión sobre las Redes Sociales como Objeto y como Herramienta a partir del Caso Rioplatense (Siglo XVIII).” In Actores Sociales, Redes de Negocios y Corporaciones en Hispanoamérica, Siglos XVII–XIX, edited by Ibarra, Antonio, López, Alvaro Alcántara, and Jumar, Fernando Alberto, 141–82. México: UNAM/CONACyT/Bonilla Artigas, 2018.Google Scholar
O'Brien, Patrick. “Was the First Industrial Revolution a Conjuncture in the History of the World Economy?” LSE Economic History Working Papers 259 (2017): 1–53. https://www.lse.ac.uk/Economic-History/Assets/Documents/WorkingPapers/Economic-History/2017/WP259.pdf.Google Scholar
O'Brien, Patrick, and Deng, Kent. “Quantifying the Quantifiable: A Reply to Jan-Luiten van Zanden and Debin Ma.” World Economics 18:3 (2017): 215–23.Google Scholar
O'Rourke, Kevin H., and Williamson, Jeffrey G.. “Once More: When Did Globalisation Begin?” European Review of Economic History 8:1 (2004): 109–17.Google Scholar
Panzac, Daniel. La caravane maritime. Marins européens et marchands ottomans en Méditerranée (1680–1830). París: CNRS, 2004.Google Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel. “Consumption of Chinese Goods in Southwestern Europe: A Multi-Relational Database and the Vicarious Consumption Theory as Alternative Model to the Industrious Revolution (Eighteenth Century).” Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History 52:1 (2019): 15–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel. “Creating Global Demand: Polycentric Approaches, Crossroads of Silk and Silver in China and Iberian Empires during the Early Modern Era.” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 38:3 (2020): 405–19.Google Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel. “Global Goods, Silver and Market Integration: Consumption of Wine, Silk and Porcelain through the Grill Company via Macao-Canton and Marseille Trade Nodes, 18th century.” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 38:3 (2020): 449–84.Google Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel. Global History with Chinese Characteristics. Autocratic States along the Silk Road in the Decline of the Spanish and Qing Empires 1680–1796. Palgrave Studies in Comparative Global History. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.Google Scholar
Perez-Garcia, Manuel, and de Sousa, Lucio. Global History and New Polycentric Approaches. Palgrave Studies in Comparative Global History. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pomeranz, Kenneth. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puschmann, Cornelius, Bastos, Marco, and Larivière, Vincent. “How Digital Are the Digital Humanities? An Analysis of Two Scholarly Blogging Platforms.” PLOS ONE 10:2 (2015).Google ScholarPubMed
Reinert, Sophus A., and Fredona, Robert. “Merchants and the Origins of Capitalism.” Harvard Business School Working Paper 18–021. Harvard Business School, 2017: 1–38. https://econpapers.repec.org/paper/hbswpaper/18-021.htm.Google Scholar
Revel, Jacques. Jeux d’échelles. La micro-analyse à l'expérience. Paris: Gallimard et Le Seuil, coll. Hautes Études, 1996.Google Scholar
Riello, Giorgio, and Roy, Tirthankar. “Introduction: Global Economic History, 1500–2000.” In Global Economic History, edited by Riello, Giorgio and Roy, Tirthankar, 1–15. London: Bloomsbury, 2018.Google Scholar
Sena, T. “In Search of Another Japan: Jesuit Motivation Towards Continental Southeast Asia in the Early 17th Century.” Revista de Cultura, Edição Internacional / Review of Culture / International Edition 52 (2016): 23–45.Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, S. “Holding the World in Balance: The Connected Histories of the Iberian Overseas Empires, 1500–1640.” American Historical Review 112: 5 (2007): 1359–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svriz-Wucherer, Omar. Resistencia y Negociación. Milicias Guaraníes, Jesuitas y Cambios Socioeconómicos en la Frontera del Imperio Global Hispánico: ss. XVII-XVIII. Rosario: Prohistoria Ediciones, 2019.Google Scholar
Teixeira, Manuel. Macau no séc. XVIII. Macau: Imprensa Nacional de Macau, 1984.Google Scholar
Terras, Melissa, Nyhan, Julianne, and Vanhoutte, Edward. Defining Digital Humanities: A Reader. London: Routledge, 2013.Google Scholar
Trivellato, Francesca. The Familiarity of Strangers: The Sephardic Diaspora, Livorno, and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Van Doosselaere, Quentin. Commercial Agreements and Social Dynamics in Medieval Genoa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Videira Pires, B. A vida marítima de Macau no século XVIII. Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau, Museu Marítimo de Macau, 1993.Google Scholar
Vries, Peer. State, Economy and the Great Divergence: Great Britain and China, 1680s–1850s. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015.Google Scholar
Wanguo, L., and Ying, H.. “A Summary of the Academic Seminar in Digital Resource Construction and Knowledge Service in 2017.” Journal of Academic Library 36:1 (2018): 12–17.Google Scholar
Wong, Roy Bin. China Transformed. Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Yun-Casalilla, Bartolomé. Iberian World Empires and the Globalization of Europe 1415–1668. Palgrave Studies in Comparative Global History. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar