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Danish Colonial Healthcare Policy, St. Croix, Virgin Islands

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 August 2019

Meredith Reifschneider
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Abstract

(Post)colonial scholarship in recent decades has undergone methodological and conceptual revisions and scholars have increasingly adopted the premise that social and political transformations are the product of both global and local struggles. The goal of this paper is to position healthcare as an “imperial force field” by focusing on the development of a colonial healthcare system in the nineteenth-century Danish West Indies. I argue that challenging seemingly self-evident concepts such as healthcare forces us to recognise that interventionist healthcare was contested and negotiated at multiple levels. This paper mobilises archival and archaeological research from a plantation hospital at Estate Cane Garden, St. Croix, Virgin Islands, to provide a context for interrogating the practical negotiations of colonial healthcare policy. While colonial administrative documents and physician reports depict a rather narrow range of healthcare practices, archaeological evidence from a plantation hospital suggests that healthcare, within plantation institutions, was more heterogeneous than the documents indicate. The goal of this paper is largely methodological. It mobilises colonial transcripts and material culture in ways that disrupt and reimagine taken-for-granted assumptions to show how those most affected by colonial policies complicate colonial institutions via on-the-ground practices.

Keywords

Danish West Indiesplantationshealthcaremedical archaeology
Type
Articles
Information
Itinerario , Volume 43 , Special Issue 2: Colonial Entanglements: Crossroads, Contact Zones and Flows in Scandinavian Global History , August 2019 , pp. 305 - 326
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 Research Institute for History, Leiden University 

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Footnotes

*

Meredith Reifschneider is an assistant professor in anthropology at San Francisco State University. She is the director of the Cane Garden Archaeology Project in St. Croix, USVI. She is currently developing a project in California focusing on nineteenth-century urban medical institutions, drawing from archaeology, oral histories, and archival documents.

References

Bibliography

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West Indian Medical Administration, Archives of the Landphysicus—WIMA/AL.Google Scholar
Archive no. 683. 683:10.2.2 Letters received and drafts for letters sent 1753–1854, 1782–1853Google Scholar
Board of Health—BH (Sundhedsstyrelsen)Google Scholar
Archive no. 1252Google Scholar
1252:15 Medical reports 1803–1958, 1821 (Medicinalindberetninger)Google Scholar
National Archives—NARA (Washington)Google Scholar
RG 55, St. Croix Landsting, Panteprotokol 1797–99, Litra M, f. 150a-150bGoogle Scholar
Arnold, David. Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Baker, Vernon G. 1980. “Archaeological Visibility of Afro-American Culture: An Example from Black Lucy's Garden, Andover, Massachusetts.” In Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America: Afro-American and Asian American Culture History, edited by Schuyler, Robert, 29–37. Farmingdale, N.Y.: Baywood Publishing, 1980.Google Scholar
Berman, Alex. “The Heroic Approach in 19th Century Therapeutics.” Medical Bulletin 24:11 (1958): 419–27.Google Scholar
Bierlich, Bernhard. “The Danish Slave Trade: Its Surgeons and Slave Mortality.” Outre-mers (2009): 229–48.Google Scholar
Bonderup, Gerda. “Danish Society and Folk Healers.” In Historical Aspects of Unconventional Medicine, edited by Nelson, Marie, Jütte, Robert, and Eklöf, Motzi, 76–7. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Bowes, Jessica. “Provisioned, Produced, Procured: Slave Subsistence Strategies and Social Relations at Thomas Jefferson's Poplar Forest.” Journal of Ethnobiology 31:1 (2011): 89–109.Google Scholar
Bredwa-Mensah, Yaw. “Slavery and Resistance on Nineteenth-Century Danish Plantations in Southeastern Gold Coast, Ghana.” African Study Monographs 29:3 (2008): 133–45.Google Scholar
Brix, Johannes. “The First Set of Legislation for Doctors in Denmark and Its Source of Inspiration.” Dansk Medicinhistorisk Arbog 38 (2009): 9–32.Google Scholar
Brunache, Peggy Lucienne. “Enslaved Women, Foodways, and Identity Formation: The Archaeology of Habitation La Mahaudiere, Guadeloupe, circa Late-18th Century to Mid-19th Century.” PhD diss., Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 2011.Google Scholar
Carney, Judith. “African Traditional Plant Knowledge in the Circum-Caribbean Region.” Journal of Ethnobiology 23:2 (2003):167–86.Google Scholar
Carroll, Patrick E. “Medical Police and the History of Public Health.” Medical History 4 (2002): 461–94.Google Scholar
Chapman, William. “Slave Villages in the Danish West Indies: Changes of the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries.” Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture 4 (1991): 108–20.Google Scholar
Cipolla, Craig. “Textual Artifacts, Artifactual Texts: An Historical Archaeology of Brothertown Writing.” Historical Archaeology 46:2 (2012): 91–109.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick, and Stoler, Ann Laura. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Crader, Diana. “Slave Diet at Monticello.” American Antiquity 55:4 (1990): 690–717.Google Scholar
Faucher, Anne-Marie, Bain, Allison, and Grimes, Vaughan. “First Archaeological Evidence for Old World Crops in the Caribbean: The Presence of Barley on the Island of Barbuda.” Historical Archaeology 51:4 (2017): 542–56.Google Scholar
Faucher, Anne-Marie., et al. “Landscape Transformation during Ceramic Age and Colonial Occupations of Barbuda, West Indies.” Environmental Archaeology 23:1 (2018): 36–46.Google Scholar
Franklin, Maria. “The Archaeological Dimensions of Soul Food: Interpreting Race, Culture, and Afro-Virginian Identity.” In Race and the Archaeology of Identity, edited by Orser, Charles E. Jr., 88–107. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Fur, Gunlög. “Colonialism and Swedish History: Unthinkable Connections?” In Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity, edited by Naum, Magdalena and M. Nordin, Jonas, 17–36. New York: Springer, 2013.Google Scholar
Hall, Martin. Archaeology and the Modern World: Colonial Transcripts in South Africa and Chesapeake. New York: Routledge, 2015.Google Scholar
Heinrich, Adam. “The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period: Experimental Chopping of Long Bones and Small Fragment Sizes.” Advances in Archaeological Practice 2:1 (2014): 1–12.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode. “Sundhed, citroner og slaver: Et detailstudie af hospitalet i Frederiksted på St. Croix i Dansk Vestindien, 1780.” 1066 Tidsskrift for Historie 33:4 (2003): 3–11.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode. “‘For the Benefit of the Planters and the Benefit of Mankind’: The Struggle to Control Midwives and Obstetrics on St. Croix, Danish West Indies, 1800–1848.” In Health and Medicine in the Circum-Caribbean 1800–1968, edited by De Barros, Juanita, Palmer, Steven, and Wright, David, 19–39. New York: Routledge, 2009.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode. “Safeguarding Slaves: Smallpox, Vaccination, and Governmental Health Policies among the Enslaved Population in the Danish West Indies, 1803–1848.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 83:1 (2009): 95–124.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode. For the Health of the Enslaved: Slaves, Medicine and Power in the Danish West Indies, 1803–1848. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode, and Simonsen, Gunvor. “Introduction: The Historiography of Slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016.” Scandinavian Journal of History 41:4–5 (2016): 475–94.Google Scholar
Johnson, Matthew. “Rethinking Historical Archaeology.” In Historical Archaeology: Back from the Edge, edited by Funari, Pedro, Hall, Martin, and Jones, Siân, 23–36. New York: Routledge, 1999.Google Scholar
King, Julia. “A Comparative Midden Analysis of a Household and Inn in St. Mary's City, Maryland.” Historical Archaeology 22:2 (1988): 17–39.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent. “Culture Contact Studies: Redefining the Relationship Between Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology.” American Antiquity 60:2 (1995): 199–217.Google Scholar
Little, Barbara. “People with History: An Update on Historical Archaeology in the United States.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 1:1 (1994): 5–40.Google Scholar
Lock, Margaret, and Nguyen, Vinh-Kim. An Anthropology of Biomedicine. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.Google Scholar
Loftsdóttir, Kristín. “Shades of Otherness: Representations of Africa in 19th-Century Iceland.” Social Anthropology 16:2 (2008): 172–86.Google Scholar
Loftsdóttir, Kristín, and Pálsson, Gísli. “Black on White: Danish Colonialism, Iceland and the Caribbean.” In Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity, edited by Naum, Magdalena and Nordin, Jonas, 37–52. New York: Springer, 2013.Google Scholar
Lynch, Richard. “The Politics of Health in the Eighteenth Century.” Foucault Studies 18 (2014): 113–27.Google Scholar
Marks, Shula. “What Is Colonial about Colonial Medicine? And What Has Happened to Imperialism and Health?” Social History of Medicine 10:2 (1997): 205–19.Google Scholar
Mathieu, Gueye, and Meissa, Diouf. “Traditional Leafy Vegetables in Senegal: Diversity and Medicinal Uses.” African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 4:4 (2007): 469–75.Google Scholar
McKee, Larry. “Food Supply and the Plantation Social Order.” In I, Too, Am America, edited by Singleton, Theresa, 218–39. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999.Google Scholar
McMullin, Juliet. “The Call to Life: Revitalizing a Healthy Hawaiian Identity.” Social Science & Medicine 61:4 (2005): 809–20.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, D., and Jones, K. T.. “A Reconsideration of Animal Body-Part Utility Indices.” American Antiquity 53:3 (1988): 486–504.Google Scholar
Misrahi-Barak, Judith. “The Amaranth Paradigm: Amerindian Indigenous Glocality in the Caribbean.” In Caribbean Globalizations, 1492 to the Present Day, edited by Sansavior, Eva and Scholar, Richard, 173–88. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Mrozowski, Stephen, Franklin, Maria, and Hunt, Leslie. “Archaeobotanical Analysis and Interpretations of Enslaved Virginian Plant Use at Rich Neck Plantation (44wb52).” American Antiquity 73:4 (2008): 699–728.Google Scholar
Naum, Magdalena, and Nordin, Jonas M.. “Introduction: Situating Scandinavian Colonialism.” In Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity, edited by Naum, Magdalena and Nordin, Jonas M., 3–16. New York: Springer, 2013.Google Scholar
Oas, Sarah, and Hauser, Mark. “The Political Ecology of Plantations from the Ground Up.” Environmental Archaeology 23:1 (2018): 4–12Google Scholar
Otto, John Solomon. Cannon's Point Plantation, 1794–1860: Living Conditions and Status Patterns in the Old South. New York: Academic Press, 1984.Google Scholar
Porter, Dorothy. The History of Public Health and the Modern State. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994.Google Scholar
Reifschneider, Meredith. “The Archaeology of Danish Healthcare Legislation and Local Healing Practices, 1803–1848, St. Croix, US Virgin Islands.” PhD diss., Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, 2017.Google Scholar
Reifschneider, Meredith. “Enslavement and Institutionalized Care: The Politics of Health in Nineteenth-Century St Croix, Danish West Indies.” World Archaeology 50:3 (2018): 494–511.Google Scholar
Reitz, Elizabeth J., and Elizabeth, S. Wing. Zooarchaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Rezende, Betsy. “Midwifery in St. Croix 1733–1870.” Sargasso 1 (2003): 89–102.Google Scholar
Rose, Nikolas. “Normality and Pathology in a Biomedical Age.” The Sociological Review 57:2 (2009): 66–83.Google Scholar
Rosen, George. “Cameralism and the Concept of Medical Police.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 27 (1953): 21–42.Google Scholar
Samford, Patricia. “Response to a Market: Dating English Underglaze Transfer-Printed Wares.” Historical Archaeology 31:2 (1997): 1–30.Google Scholar
Simonsen, Gunvor. “Magic, Obeah and Law in the Danish West Indies, 1750s–1840s.” In Ports of Globalisation, Places of Creolisation: Nordic Possessions in the Atlantic World during the Era of the Slave Trade, edited by Weiss, Holger, 245–79. Boston: Brill, 2015.Google Scholar
Singleton, Theresa. “The Archaeology of Slavery in North America.” Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995): 119–40.Google Scholar
Skydsgaard, Morten. “It's Probably in the Air: Medical Meteorology in Denmark, 1810–1875.” Medical History 54:02 (2010): 215–36.Google Scholar
Soelberg, Jens, Davis, Olasee, and Jäger, Anna. “Historical Versus Contemporary Medicinal Plant Uses in the US Virgin Islands.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 192 (2016): 74–89.Google Scholar
South, Stanley. “Pattern Recognition in Historical Archaeology.” American Antiquity 43:2 (1978): 223–30.Google Scholar
Starr, Fiona. “Convict Artefacts from the Civil Hospital Privy on Norfolk Island.” Australasian Historical Archaeology 19 (2001): 39–47.Google Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. Duress: Imperial Durabilities in Our Times. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber. Farming, Hunting, and Fishing in the Olmec World. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara. “Image, Text, Object: Interpreting Documents and Artifacts as ‘Labors of Representation.’” Historical Archaeology 41:4 (2007): 147–71.Google Scholar
Wheatley, Bruce. “Perimortem or Postmortem Bone Fractures? An Experimental Study of Fracture Patterns in Deer Femora.” Journal of Forensic Sciences 53:1 (2008): 69–72.Google Scholar
Wilkie, Laurie. “Secret and Sacred: Contextualizing the Artifacts of African-American Magic and Religion.” Historical Archaeology 31:4 (1997): 81–106.Google Scholar
Wilkie, Laurie. “Culture Bought: Evidence of Creolization in the Consumer Goods of an Enslaved Bahamian Family.” Historical Archaeology 34:3 (2000): 10–26.Google Scholar
Danish National Archives—DNA (Rigsarkivet)Google Scholar
West Indian Medical Administration, Archives of the Landphysicus—WIMA/AL.Google Scholar
Archive no. 683. 683:10.2.2 Letters received and drafts for letters sent 1753–1854, 1782–1853Google Scholar
Board of Health—BH (Sundhedsstyrelsen)Google Scholar
Archive no. 1252Google Scholar
1252:15 Medical reports 1803–1958, 1821 (Medicinalindberetninger)Google Scholar
National Archives—NARA (Washington)Google Scholar
RG 55, St. Croix Landsting, Panteprotokol 1797–99, Litra M, f. 150a-150bGoogle Scholar
Arnold, David. Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Baker, Vernon G. 1980. “Archaeological Visibility of Afro-American Culture: An Example from Black Lucy's Garden, Andover, Massachusetts.” In Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America: Afro-American and Asian American Culture History, edited by Schuyler, Robert, 29–37. Farmingdale, N.Y.: Baywood Publishing, 1980.Google Scholar
Berman, Alex. “The Heroic Approach in 19th Century Therapeutics.” Medical Bulletin 24:11 (1958): 419–27.Google Scholar
Bierlich, Bernhard. “The Danish Slave Trade: Its Surgeons and Slave Mortality.” Outre-mers (2009): 229–48.Google Scholar
Bonderup, Gerda. “Danish Society and Folk Healers.” In Historical Aspects of Unconventional Medicine, edited by Nelson, Marie, Jütte, Robert, and Eklöf, Motzi, 76–7. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Bowes, Jessica. “Provisioned, Produced, Procured: Slave Subsistence Strategies and Social Relations at Thomas Jefferson's Poplar Forest.” Journal of Ethnobiology 31:1 (2011): 89–109.Google Scholar
Bredwa-Mensah, Yaw. “Slavery and Resistance on Nineteenth-Century Danish Plantations in Southeastern Gold Coast, Ghana.” African Study Monographs 29:3 (2008): 133–45.Google Scholar
Brix, Johannes. “The First Set of Legislation for Doctors in Denmark and Its Source of Inspiration.” Dansk Medicinhistorisk Arbog 38 (2009): 9–32.Google Scholar
Brunache, Peggy Lucienne. “Enslaved Women, Foodways, and Identity Formation: The Archaeology of Habitation La Mahaudiere, Guadeloupe, circa Late-18th Century to Mid-19th Century.” PhD diss., Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 2011.Google Scholar
Carney, Judith. “African Traditional Plant Knowledge in the Circum-Caribbean Region.” Journal of Ethnobiology 23:2 (2003):167–86.Google Scholar
Carroll, Patrick E. “Medical Police and the History of Public Health.” Medical History 4 (2002): 461–94.Google Scholar
Chapman, William. “Slave Villages in the Danish West Indies: Changes of the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries.” Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture 4 (1991): 108–20.Google Scholar
Cipolla, Craig. “Textual Artifacts, Artifactual Texts: An Historical Archaeology of Brothertown Writing.” Historical Archaeology 46:2 (2012): 91–109.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick, and Stoler, Ann Laura. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Crader, Diana. “Slave Diet at Monticello.” American Antiquity 55:4 (1990): 690–717.Google Scholar
Faucher, Anne-Marie, Bain, Allison, and Grimes, Vaughan. “First Archaeological Evidence for Old World Crops in the Caribbean: The Presence of Barley on the Island of Barbuda.” Historical Archaeology 51:4 (2017): 542–56.Google Scholar
Faucher, Anne-Marie., et al. “Landscape Transformation during Ceramic Age and Colonial Occupations of Barbuda, West Indies.” Environmental Archaeology 23:1 (2018): 36–46.Google Scholar
Franklin, Maria. “The Archaeological Dimensions of Soul Food: Interpreting Race, Culture, and Afro-Virginian Identity.” In Race and the Archaeology of Identity, edited by Orser, Charles E. Jr., 88–107. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Fur, Gunlög. “Colonialism and Swedish History: Unthinkable Connections?” In Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity, edited by Naum, Magdalena and M. Nordin, Jonas, 17–36. New York: Springer, 2013.Google Scholar
Hall, Martin. Archaeology and the Modern World: Colonial Transcripts in South Africa and Chesapeake. New York: Routledge, 2015.Google Scholar
Heinrich, Adam. “The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period: Experimental Chopping of Long Bones and Small Fragment Sizes.” Advances in Archaeological Practice 2:1 (2014): 1–12.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode. “Sundhed, citroner og slaver: Et detailstudie af hospitalet i Frederiksted på St. Croix i Dansk Vestindien, 1780.” 1066 Tidsskrift for Historie 33:4 (2003): 3–11.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode. “‘For the Benefit of the Planters and the Benefit of Mankind’: The Struggle to Control Midwives and Obstetrics on St. Croix, Danish West Indies, 1800–1848.” In Health and Medicine in the Circum-Caribbean 1800–1968, edited by De Barros, Juanita, Palmer, Steven, and Wright, David, 19–39. New York: Routledge, 2009.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode. “Safeguarding Slaves: Smallpox, Vaccination, and Governmental Health Policies among the Enslaved Population in the Danish West Indies, 1803–1848.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 83:1 (2009): 95–124.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode. For the Health of the Enslaved: Slaves, Medicine and Power in the Danish West Indies, 1803–1848. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Jensen, Niklas Thode, and Simonsen, Gunvor. “Introduction: The Historiography of Slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016.” Scandinavian Journal of History 41:4–5 (2016): 475–94.Google Scholar
Johnson, Matthew. “Rethinking Historical Archaeology.” In Historical Archaeology: Back from the Edge, edited by Funari, Pedro, Hall, Martin, and Jones, Siân, 23–36. New York: Routledge, 1999.Google Scholar
King, Julia. “A Comparative Midden Analysis of a Household and Inn in St. Mary's City, Maryland.” Historical Archaeology 22:2 (1988): 17–39.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent. “Culture Contact Studies: Redefining the Relationship Between Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology.” American Antiquity 60:2 (1995): 199–217.Google Scholar
Little, Barbara. “People with History: An Update on Historical Archaeology in the United States.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 1:1 (1994): 5–40.Google Scholar
Lock, Margaret, and Nguyen, Vinh-Kim. An Anthropology of Biomedicine. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.Google Scholar
Loftsdóttir, Kristín. “Shades of Otherness: Representations of Africa in 19th-Century Iceland.” Social Anthropology 16:2 (2008): 172–86.Google Scholar
Loftsdóttir, Kristín, and Pálsson, Gísli. “Black on White: Danish Colonialism, Iceland and the Caribbean.” In Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity, edited by Naum, Magdalena and Nordin, Jonas, 37–52. New York: Springer, 2013.Google Scholar
Lynch, Richard. “The Politics of Health in the Eighteenth Century.” Foucault Studies 18 (2014): 113–27.Google Scholar
Marks, Shula. “What Is Colonial about Colonial Medicine? And What Has Happened to Imperialism and Health?” Social History of Medicine 10:2 (1997): 205–19.Google Scholar
Mathieu, Gueye, and Meissa, Diouf. “Traditional Leafy Vegetables in Senegal: Diversity and Medicinal Uses.” African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 4:4 (2007): 469–75.Google Scholar
McKee, Larry. “Food Supply and the Plantation Social Order.” In I, Too, Am America, edited by Singleton, Theresa, 218–39. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999.Google Scholar
McMullin, Juliet. “The Call to Life: Revitalizing a Healthy Hawaiian Identity.” Social Science & Medicine 61:4 (2005): 809–20.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, D., and Jones, K. T.. “A Reconsideration of Animal Body-Part Utility Indices.” American Antiquity 53:3 (1988): 486–504.Google Scholar
Misrahi-Barak, Judith. “The Amaranth Paradigm: Amerindian Indigenous Glocality in the Caribbean.” In Caribbean Globalizations, 1492 to the Present Day, edited by Sansavior, Eva and Scholar, Richard, 173–88. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Mrozowski, Stephen, Franklin, Maria, and Hunt, Leslie. “Archaeobotanical Analysis and Interpretations of Enslaved Virginian Plant Use at Rich Neck Plantation (44wb52).” American Antiquity 73:4 (2008): 699–728.Google Scholar
Naum, Magdalena, and Nordin, Jonas M.. “Introduction: Situating Scandinavian Colonialism.” In Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity, edited by Naum, Magdalena and Nordin, Jonas M., 3–16. New York: Springer, 2013.Google Scholar
Oas, Sarah, and Hauser, Mark. “The Political Ecology of Plantations from the Ground Up.” Environmental Archaeology 23:1 (2018): 4–12Google Scholar
Otto, John Solomon. Cannon's Point Plantation, 1794–1860: Living Conditions and Status Patterns in the Old South. New York: Academic Press, 1984.Google Scholar
Porter, Dorothy. The History of Public Health and the Modern State. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994.Google Scholar
Reifschneider, Meredith. “The Archaeology of Danish Healthcare Legislation and Local Healing Practices, 1803–1848, St. Croix, US Virgin Islands.” PhD diss., Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, 2017.Google Scholar
Reifschneider, Meredith. “Enslavement and Institutionalized Care: The Politics of Health in Nineteenth-Century St Croix, Danish West Indies.” World Archaeology 50:3 (2018): 494–511.Google Scholar
Reitz, Elizabeth J., and Elizabeth, S. Wing. Zooarchaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Rezende, Betsy. “Midwifery in St. Croix 1733–1870.” Sargasso 1 (2003): 89–102.Google Scholar
Rose, Nikolas. “Normality and Pathology in a Biomedical Age.” The Sociological Review 57:2 (2009): 66–83.Google Scholar
Rosen, George. “Cameralism and the Concept of Medical Police.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 27 (1953): 21–42.Google Scholar
Samford, Patricia. “Response to a Market: Dating English Underglaze Transfer-Printed Wares.” Historical Archaeology 31:2 (1997): 1–30.Google Scholar
Simonsen, Gunvor. “Magic, Obeah and Law in the Danish West Indies, 1750s–1840s.” In Ports of Globalisation, Places of Creolisation: Nordic Possessions in the Atlantic World during the Era of the Slave Trade, edited by Weiss, Holger, 245–79. Boston: Brill, 2015.Google Scholar
Singleton, Theresa. “The Archaeology of Slavery in North America.” Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995): 119–40.Google Scholar
Skydsgaard, Morten. “It's Probably in the Air: Medical Meteorology in Denmark, 1810–1875.” Medical History 54:02 (2010): 215–36.Google Scholar
Soelberg, Jens, Davis, Olasee, and Jäger, Anna. “Historical Versus Contemporary Medicinal Plant Uses in the US Virgin Islands.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 192 (2016): 74–89.Google Scholar
South, Stanley. “Pattern Recognition in Historical Archaeology.” American Antiquity 43:2 (1978): 223–30.Google Scholar
Starr, Fiona. “Convict Artefacts from the Civil Hospital Privy on Norfolk Island.” Australasian Historical Archaeology 19 (2001): 39–47.Google Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. Duress: Imperial Durabilities in Our Times. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber. Farming, Hunting, and Fishing in the Olmec World. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara. “Image, Text, Object: Interpreting Documents and Artifacts as ‘Labors of Representation.’” Historical Archaeology 41:4 (2007): 147–71.Google Scholar
Wheatley, Bruce. “Perimortem or Postmortem Bone Fractures? An Experimental Study of Fracture Patterns in Deer Femora.” Journal of Forensic Sciences 53:1 (2008): 69–72.Google Scholar
Wilkie, Laurie. “Secret and Sacred: Contextualizing the Artifacts of African-American Magic and Religion.” Historical Archaeology 31:4 (1997): 81–106.Google Scholar
Wilkie, Laurie. “Culture Bought: Evidence of Creolization in the Consumer Goods of an Enslaved Bahamian Family.” Historical Archaeology 34:3 (2000): 10–26.Google Scholar