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UNESCO and the WTO: a Clash of Cultures?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 January 2008

Tania Voon
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Extract

The rights and obligations of Parties … include a series of policies and measures aimed at protecting and promoting the diversity of cultural expressions, approaching creativity and all it implies in the context of globalization, where diverse expressions are circulated and made accessible to all via cultural goods and services.

Type
Shorter Articles, Comments and Notes
Information
International & Comparative Law Quarterly , Volume 55 , Issue 3 , July 2006 , pp. 635 - 651
Copyright
Copyright © British Institute of International and Comparative Law 2006

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References

1 UNESCO ‘General Conference adopts Convention on the protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions’ Press Release 2005–128 (20 Oct 2005).Google Scholar

2 United States Mission to UNESCO ‘Explanation of Vote of the United States on the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions: Statement delivered by Louise V Oliver, US Ambassador to UNESCO’ (Paris 20 Oct 2005).

3 UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions CLT-2005/Convention Diversité-Cult Rev (20 Oct 2005).

4 UNESCO Convention preamble [18].

5 Alan Riding ‘U.S. all but alone in opposing Unesco cultural pact’ International Herald Tribune (20 Oct 2005).

6 UNESCO Convention Art 29.1.

7 See <http://www.unesco.org/general/eng/about/members.shtml> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

8 <http://www.wto.org/English/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm> (accessed 27 Mar 2006). Liechtenstein and Singapore are WTO Members but not UNESCO Member States. WTO Membership is not restricted to states: Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (Marrakesh Agreement) Arts XI:1, XII:1. The following WTO Members are not UNESCO Member States or Associate Members: the European Communities, Hong Kong, and Chinese Taipei. Macau is a WTO Member and a UNESCO Associate Member.

9 See Bernier, Ivan and Fabri, Hélène RuizÉvaluation de la faisabilité juridique d'un instrument international sur la diversité culturelle (2002) 22–3.Google Scholar

10 Hélène Ruiz Fabri Analyse et commentaire critique de l'avant-projet de convention sur la protection de la diversité des contenus culturels et des expressions artistiques dans la version soumise pour commentaires et observations aux gouvernements des Etats membres de l'UNESCO: Etude réalisée à la demande de l'Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (Aug 2004) [1].

11 For an overview of the relevant issues see Footer, Mary and Graber, Christoph Beat ‘Trade Liberalization and Cultural Policy’ (2000) 3 Journal of International Economic Law 115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

12 See eg Council for Trade in Services, WTO Audiovisual Services: Background Note by the Secretariat S/C/W/40 (15 June 1998) [24], [30] GATT Peter Sutherland Responds to Debate on Audiovisual Sector NUR 069 (14 Oct 1993); Falkenberg, Karl ‘The Audiovisual Sector’ in Bourgeois, Jacques et al. (eds) The Uruguay Round Results: A European Lawyers' Perspective (European Interuniversity Press Brussels 1995) 429.Google Scholar

13 See eg Bernier, Ivan ‘Trade and Culture’ in Macrory, Patrick et al. (eds) The World Trade Organization: Legal, Economic and Political Analysis (Springer Verlag New York 2005) (vol II) 747, 789, 791;Google ScholarGagné, Gilbert ‘Une Convention internationale sur la diversité culturelle et le dilemme culture-commerce’ in Gagné, Gilbert (ed) La diversité culturelle: Vers une convention internationale effective? (Fides Québec 2005) 37, 51–3;Google ScholarSmiers, JoostArtistic Expression in a Corporate World: Do we need monopolistic control? (2004) 24–5, 33;Google ScholarUNCTAD Audiovisual Services: Improving Participation of Developing Countries–Note by the UNCTAD secretariat TD/B/COM.1/EM.20/2 (30 Sept 2002) 16–17.Google Scholar

14 Koskenniemi, Martti and Leino, Päivi ‘Fragmentation of International Law? Postmodern Anxieties’ (2002) 15(3) Leiden Journal of International Law 553, 572, 574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

15 Cultural Industries Sectoral Advisory Group on International Trade, Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade An International Agreement on Cultural Diversity: A Model for Discussion (09 2002) 9.Google Scholar

16 <http:/incp-/ripc.org/about/index_e.shtml> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

17 International Network on Cultural Policy Draft International Convention on Cultural Diversity (29 07 2003).Google Scholar

18 International Network on Cultural Policy Sixth INCP Annual Ministerial Meeting: Ministerial Statement(Opatija16–18 Oct 2003).Google Scholar

19 The INCD attended the WTO Ministerial Conferences in 2001 and 2003: <http://www.wto.org/English/forums_e/ngo_e/ngo_e.htm> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).+(accessed+27+Mar+2006).>Google Scholar

20 <http://www.incd.net/about.html> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

21 International Network for Cultural Diversity, Advancing Cultural Diversity Globally: The Role of Civil Society Movements—Report from the Fourth Annual Conference of the International Network for Cultural Diversity in partnership with Culturelink Network/IMO (Opatija 13–15 10 2003) 17.Google Scholar

22 International Network for Cultural Diversity Proposed Convention on Cultural Diversity (15 01 2003).Google Scholar

23 UNESCO Preliminary study on the technical and legal aspects relating to the desirability of a standard-setting instrument on cultural diversity 166 EX/28 (12 03 2003) summary.Google Scholar

24 ibid [3]–[10], annex.

25 UNESCO Decisions adopted by the Executive Board at its 166th Session 166 EX/Decisions (14 05 2003) 11.Google Scholar

26 General Conference,UNESCO Resolution 34 adopted at the 32nd Session(29 Sept 2003–17 Oct 2003) [1].Google Scholar

27 UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Preliminary Report of the Director-General CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.201/1 (July 2004) [5], [7].Google Scholar

28 The meetings were held at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris from 17–20 Dec 2003, 30 Mar–3 Apr 2004, and 28–31 May 2004.

29 UNESCO Report of the Third Meeting of Experts (Category VI) on the Preliminary Draft of the Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions CLT/CPD/2004/603/5 (23 June 2004).

30 The meetings were held at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris from 20–24 Sept 2004, 31 Jan–11 Feb 2005, and 25 May–3 June 2005.

31 UNESCO First Session of the Intergovernmental Meeting of Experts on the Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Report by the Secretariat CLT-2004/CONF.201/9 (Nov 2004) [2].Google Scholar

32 UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Text Revised by the Drafting Committee, 14–17 Dec 2004 CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/6 (23 Dec 2004) [7]. See also Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004).

33 Third Intergovernmental Meeting of Experts, UNESCO Recommendation (3 June 2005) [2], [5].

34 UNESCO Convention Art 1(g).

35 ibid Art 3.

36 ibid Art 4.3.

37 ibid Art 4.2.

38 See eg Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 24–5. See also Bonnie Richardson ‘Hollywood's Vision of a Clear, Predictable Trade Framework Consistent with Cultural Diversity’ in Christoph Beat Graber et al (eds) Free Trade versus Cultural Diversity: WTO Negotiations in the Field of Audiovisual Services (2004) 111, 115–16.

39 UNESCO Convention Art 2.1.

40 ibid Art 2.2.

41 ibid Art 2.8.

42 ibid Art 6.1.

43 ibid Art 6.2(d).

44 ibid Art 6.2(b).

45 See the concerns raised by WTO Members in Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 24.

46 UNESCO Convention Art 8.1.

47 ibid Art 8.2.

48 ibid Art 12(e).

49 ibid Art 25.1

50 ibid Art 25.2

51 ibid Art 25.3

52 See Hélène Ruiz Fabri Analyse et commentaire critique de l'avant-projet de convention sur la protection de la diversité des contenus culturels et des expressions artistiques dans la version soumise pour commentaires et observations aux gouvernements des Etats membres de l'UNESCO: Etude réalisée à la demande de l'Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (Aug 2004) [8]–[9].

53 UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Preliminary Report of the Director-General CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.201/1 (July 2004) Art 24.

54 ibid Art 19 (option B).

55 ibid [13]; General Council, WTO Annual Report 2004 WT/GC/86 (12 Jan 2005) 20; General Council, WTO Minutes of Meeting Held on 20 Oct 2004 WT/GC/M/88 (11 Nov 2004) [64]–[85].

56 Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 23; General Conference, UNESCO Preliminary Report by the Director-General Setting out the Situation to be Regulated and the Possible Scope of the Regulating Action Proposed, Accompanied by the Preliminary Draft of a Convention on the Protection and of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions 33 C/23 (4 Aug 2005) [17].

57 General Council, WTO Minutes of Meeting Held on 20 Oct 2004 WT/GC/M/88 (11 Nov 2004) [69].

58 See Hélène Ruiz Fabri Analyse et commentaire critique de l'avant-projet de convention sur la protection de la diversité des contenus culturels et des expressions artistiques dans la version soumise pour commentaires et observations aux gouvernements des Etats membres de l'UNESCO: Etude réalisée à la demande de l'Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (Aug 2004) [4].

59 See eg Acheson, Keith and Maule, Christopher ‘Convention on Cultural Diversity’ (2004) 28 Journal of Cultural Economics 243, 245, 251;CrossRefGoogle ScholarGilbert, Gagné ‘Une Convention internationale sur la diversité culturelle et le dilemme culture-commerce’ in Gagné, Gilbert (ed) La diversité culturelle: Vers une convention internationale effective? (European Interuniversity Press Brussels 2005) 37, 61.Google Scholar

60 General Council, WTO Minutes of Meeting Held on 20 October 2004 WT/GC/M/88 (11 Nov 2004) [65].

61 Drafting Committee, UNESCOPreliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 23.Google Scholar

62 Council for Trade in Services, WTO Report of the Meeting Held on 23 Sept 2004: Note by the Secretariat S/C/M/74 (10 Nov 2004) [74].

63 WTO Information Note from the Director-General, WTO Public Symposium— ‘WTO After 10 Years: Global Problems and Multilateral Solutions’, 20 to 22 April 2005 WT/INF/87 (13 Apr 2005) 5.

64 GATS Art XIX:2.

65 Acheson, Keith and Maule, Christopher ‘Convention on Cultural Diversity’ (2004) 28 Journal of Cultural Economics 243, 251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Bernier, Ivan and Fabri, Hélène RuizÉvaluation de la faisabilité juridique d'un instrument international sur la diversité culturelle (2002) 42;Google ScholarGagné, Gilbert ‘Une Convention internationale sur la diversité culturelle et le dilemme culture-commerce’ in Gagné, Gilbert (ed) La diversité culturelle: Vers une convention internationale effective? (European Interuniversity Press Brussels 2005) 37, 60;Google ScholarTrebilcock, Michael and Howse, RobertThe Regulation of International Trade (3rd ednRoutledge Oxford 2005) 640.Google Scholar

66 See Iapadre, Lelio ‘Comment’ (2004) 28 Journal of Cultural Economics 267, 269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

67 GATS Art XIX:1; Marrakesh Agreement, preamble.

68 Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 25.

69 ibid 26.

70 Panel Report US—Certain EC Products, [6.13].

71 ibid [2.21]–[2.25], [7.1(a)].

72 Marceau, Gabrielle ‘Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties’ (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarOn overlaps between WTO disputes and international disputes in other fora, see Paulwelyn, Joost ‘Adding Sweeteners to Softwood Lumber: the WTO–NAFTA “Spaghetti Bowl” is cooking’ (2006) 9(1) Journal of International Economic Law 197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

73 See Shany, YuvalThe Competing Jurisdictions of International Courts and Tribunals (OUP Oxford 2003) 183–5.Google Scholar

74 DSU Art 3.7.

75 See also Pauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 317–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

76 A comparable situation may arise under multilateral environmental agreements. See eg Committee on Trade and Environment, WTO Report (1996) of the Committee on Trade and Environment WT/CTE/1 (12 Nov 1996) [178].

77 Emphasis added.

78 DSU Arts 3.4, 3.6.

79 ibid Art 3.2.

80 Robert, Howse ‘The Most Dangerous Branch? WTO Appellate Body Jurisprudence on the Nature and Limits of the Judicial Power’ in Cottier, Thomas and Mavroidis, Petros (eds) The Role of the Judge in International Trade Regulation: Experience and Lessons for the WTO vol 4 (The University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor 2003) 11, 15.Google Scholar

81 Appellate Body Report Chile—Alcoholic Beverages, [79].

82 Appellate Body Report US—Gasoline, 16–17.

83 ibid 17.

84 See eg Appellate Body Report EC—Computer Equipment, ‘84’; Appellate Body Report EC—Sardines, [200]; Appellate Body Report India—Patents (US), [46]; Appellate Body Report Japan—Alcoholic Beverages II, 10; Appellate Body Report US—Carbon Steel, [61]; Appellate Body Report EC–Chicken Cuts, [176]

85 Appellate Body Report US—Shrimp, [129]–[32]. See also Appellate Body Report EC— Tariff Preferences, [163]; leaked interim panel report, European Communities—Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS 291, 292, 293 (7 Feb 2006) [7.92] at <http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/leaked_wto_report_us_misle_ 28022006.html> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

86 Appellate Body Report US—Shrimp, [158]. See also Appellate Body Report US—FSC, [166]; Appellate Body Report Brazil—Desiccated Coconut, 15; Appellate Body Report Canada— Patent Term, [71].

87 See Appellate Body Report US—Shrimp, [130]; Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (Advisory Opinion) [1971] ICJ Rep 16, [53].

88 See Pauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 257–8, 261;CrossRefGoogle ScholarLennard, Michael ‘Navigating by the Stars: Interpreting the WTO Agreements’ (2002) 5(1) Journal of International Economic Law 17, 35–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarBut see Marceau, Gabrielle ‘Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties’ (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1087.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

89 See leaked interim panel report, European Communities—Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS 291, 292, 293 (7 Feb 2006) [7.68]–[7.71] at <http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/leaked_wto_report_us_misle_28022006.html> (accessed 27 Mar 2006).

90 See DSU Arts 1.1, 11, 17.6, 19.1. See also Marceau, Gabrielle ‘Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties’ (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1107;CrossRefGoogle ScholarPauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarBut see Trachtman, Joel ‘Review of Joost Pauwelyn, Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to Other Rules of International Law’ (2004) 98 American Journal of International Law 855, 857.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

91 See eg Marceau, Gabrielle ‘Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties’ (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1102–4;CrossRefGoogle ScholarTrachtman, Joel ‘The Domain of WTO Dispute Resolution’ (1999) 40(2) Harvard International Law Journal 333, 342;Google ScholarTrachtman, Joel ‘The Jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization’ (2004) 98 American Society of International Law Proceedings 139, 140–1.Google ScholarSee also McGinnis, John ‘The Appropriate Hierarchy of Global Multilateralism and Customary International Law: The Example of the WTO’ (2003) 44 Virginia Journal of International Law 229, 255, 266–8;Google ScholarSteger, Debra ‘The Jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization’s (2004) 98 American Society of International Law Proceedings 142, 143–4.Google Scholar

92 Pauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 25–40, 465, 466, 469;CrossRefGoogle ScholarPauwelyn, Joost ‘The Jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization’ (2004) 98 American Society of International Law Proceedings 135, 138.Google ScholarSee also Kuijper, Pieter Jan ‘The Law of GATT as a Special Field of International Law’ (1994) Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 227;Google ScholarBartels, Lorand ‘Applicable Law in WTO Dispute Settlement Proceedings’ (2001) 35(3) Journal of World Trade 499, 518; Panel Report Korea—Procurement, [7.96].CrossRefGoogle Scholar

93 See eg Appellate Body Report EC—Hormones, [123]–[124]; Appellate Body Report Argentina—Textiles and Apparel, [13], [69]; Appellate Body Report EC—Poultry, [2], [78]–[79], [81]; Appellate Body Report EC—Export Subsidies on Sugar, [310rsqb;–[313]. See also Lindroos, Anja and Mehling, Michael ‘Dispelling the Chimera of “Self-contained Regimes”: International Law and the WTO’ (2006) 16(5) European Journal of International Law 857, 876–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

94 ‘[T]he method of literal interpretation is relatively safe, and … its results are more easily accepted than results reached by other interpretative tools’: Ehlermann, Claus-Dieter ‘Six Years on the Bench of the “World Trade Court”: Some Personal Experiences as Member of the Appellate Body of the World Trade Organization’ (2002) 36(4) Journal of World Trade 605, 617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarOn the gradual evolution of the Appellate Body's approach, see Ortino, Federico ‘Treaty Interpretation and the WTO Appellate Body’ in US–Gambling, A Critique’ (2006) 9(1) Journal of International Economic Law 117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

95 Appellate Body Report US—Underwear, 15.

96 ibid. See also Appellate Body Report US—Wool Shirts and Blouses, 16.

97 Appellate Body Report EC—Hormones, [177].

98 Appellate Body Report US—Carbon Steel, [90].

99 Appellate Body Report Brazil—Aircraft, [139]. See also Appellate Body Report EC— Bananas III, [136], quoting the panel with approval.

100 Appellate Body Report Mexico—Taxes on Soft Drinks, [69].

101 ibid [79].

102 See eg Marceau, Gabrielle ‘Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties’ (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1084.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

103 Pauwelyn, Joost ‘The Role of Public International Law in the WTO: How Far Can We Go?’ (2001) 95 American Journal of International Law 535, 551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarSee also Pauwelyn, JoostConflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

104 See eg UNESCO Preliminary Report of the Director-General Containing Two Preliminary Drafts of a Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions CLT/CPD/2005/CONF.203/6 (3 Mar 2005) Appendix 1 (composite text), Art 19 (option B) (emphasis added).

105 Emphasis added.

106 See VCLT, Art 30(4).