Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-05T02:08:51.493Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“Silence and Cowardice” at the University of Michigan: World War I and the Pursuit of Un-American Faculty

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Timothy Reese Cain
Timothy Reese Cain*
Affiliation:
Department of Education Policy, Organization and Leadership, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

In September 1915, Minne Allen traveled from her native Germany to the United States, where her new husband Edward was set to begin a position as math instructor in the University of Michigan's College of Engineering. Although Minne was nervous about moving from cosmopolitan Berlin to a small college town and worried about the war ravaging Europe, she was excited to begin her married life. Four years later, the University of Michigan Board of Regents initiated dismissal proceedings against her husband, alleging that he had supported Germany in the recently concluded war. Even before Edward's removal, Minne had grown tired of the constant suspicion and surveillance that the university and her hyper-patriotic neighbors forced her and her husband to endure. She wrote to her mother:

The unwillingness to subscribe voluntarily to the purchase of war bonds was and is still enough to dismiss an employee, especially if he is an independently thinking and acting employee who dares openly to criticize and to make suggestions for an honorable government policy and to work for peace and reconciliation…. Forced by many considerations, the educational institutions, which should have the greatest freedom of thought, have become places of silence and cowardice.

Type
Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 51 , Issue 3 , August 2011 , pp. 296 - 329
Copyright
Copyright © 2011 History of Education Society 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Allen, Minne to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 7 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil: Letters to a German Mother, 1914–1920, trans. and ed. Julius W. Allen (Santa Ana, CA: Seven Locks, 1998), 196–98.Google Scholar

2 The battles over civil liberties extended far beyond higher education during the war and in its aftermath. Federal legislation restricted the rights of individuals, especially those of foreign birth. President Woodrow Wilson created the Committee on Public Information (CPI) to lead the internal propaganda effort aimed at convincing Americans of the necessity of war while demonizing Germany. The CPI shaped public opinion, stoked the war hysteria, and advanced censorship of the press. Private organizations such as the National Security League went even further. Murphy, Paul L., World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties in the United States (New York: Norton, 1979), 15; Peterson, H.C. and Fite, Gilbert C., Opponents of War, 1917–1918 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957); Mock, James R. and Larson, Cedric, Words That Won the War: The Story of the Committee on Public Information, 1911–1919 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1939).Google Scholar

3 Gruber, Carol S., Mars and Minerva: World War I and the Uses of the Higher Learning in America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 187–206; Metzger, Walter P., Academic Freedom in the Age of the University (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955), 224–28; William Summerscales, Affirmation and Dissent: Columbia's Response to the Crisis of World War I (New York: Teachers College Press, 1970), 72–102.Google Scholar

4 Gruber, Mars and Minerva, 174–75; Peckham, Howard H., The Making of the University of Michigan, 1817–1992 (1967; repr., with ref. by Steneck, Margaret L. and Steneck, Nicholas H., Ann Arbor: Bentley Library of the University of Michigan, 1992), 146–47; Matsen, William E., “Professor William, S. [sic] Schaper, War Hysteria and the Price of Academic Freedom,” Minnesota History 51 (Winter 1988): 130–37; Bruce Tap, “Suppression of Dissent: Academic Freedom at the University of Illinois during the World War I Era,” Illinois Historical Journal 85 (Spring 1992): 2–22; Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 102–12; William Elmer Nicholas III, “Academic Dissent in World War I, 1917–1918” (PhD dissertation, Tulane University, 1971); Erving E. Beauregard, History of Academic Freedom in Ohio: Case Studies in Higher Education, 1808–1976 (New York: Peter Lang, 1988), 63–72.Google Scholar

5 Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 174.Google Scholar

6 Peckham, , Making of the University of Michigan, 140–50; Clifford Wilcox, “World War I and the Attack on Professors of German at the University of Michigan,” History of Education Quarterly 33 (Spring 1993): 59–84; Marwil, Jonathan, A History of Ann Arbor (Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Observer Company, 1987).Google Scholar

7 Wilcox, , “World War I,” 59.Google Scholar

8 Peckham, , Making of the University of Michigan, 140–41; Smith, Shirley W., Harry Burns Hutchins and the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1951), 180–90.Google Scholar

9 Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1910–14), 965. http://www.hti.umich.edu/u/umregproc/.Google Scholar

10 Hutchins, to Henry, Lucien, 14 December 1915, Box 10, Harry, B. Hutchins Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Hutchins Papers).Google Scholar

11 Several speakers, including Taft, William Howard, Garfield, James Rudolph, and Steffens, Lincoln, visited campus to advocate for either entry or neutrality. Others, including Eugene Debs, were banned altogether. Smith, Harry Burns Hutchins, 188.Google Scholar

12 Hutchins to Florer, Warren W., 16 January 1914, Box 1, Warren, W. Florer Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Florer Papers); Hutchins to Lucien Henry, 14 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Osgerby to Warren W. Florer, 3 April 1915, Box 1, Florer Papers; Hutchins to F.L. Bliss, 26 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

13 Caroline Alberta Humphrey to Hutchins, 1 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Norman Hill, 18 October 1917, Box 1, Florer Papers.Google Scholar

14 Hobbs, William H., “Letter to the editor,” New York Times, 18 April 1915; Hobbs to Hutchins, 15 November 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Hobbs, 16 November 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Bertha Kutschke to Hutchins, 22 November 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hopkins, Cornelia R. to Hutchins, 2 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Eggert to Hutchins, 27 September 1917, Box 11, University of Michigan Board of Regents Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Regents Papers).Google Scholar

15 Sullivan, Dennis P. to Hutchins, 26 November 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

16 Bulkley, to Hutchins, , 3 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Bulkley, 9 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Bulkley, 13 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins, to Sullivan, Dennis P., 6 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

17 Ward, Robert D., “The Origin and Activities of the National Security League, 1914–1919“, Mississippi Valley Historical Review 47 (June 1960): 51–65; Smith, , Harry Burns Hutchins, 186–87; Hutchins, to Sullivan, , 6 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; “Cramton Asks Sift of University of Michigan Pro-Ally Plea,” Detroit Free Press, 14 April 1916.Google Scholar

18 “May Censor University of Michigan Memorial Signers,” Detroit News, 10 January 1917.Google Scholar

19 “University Professors Resent Koehler's Act,” Detroit News. 12 January 1917.Google Scholar

20 Ibid.Google Scholar

21 Ibid.; “Prof. Reeves Attacks Koehler Resolution,” Detroit News Tribune, 14 January 1917.Google Scholar

22 Clements, to Claude, H. Van Tyne, 18 April 1916, Box 1, Claude, H. Van Tyne Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Van Tyne Papers).Google Scholar

23 Claude, H. Van Tyne, “Letter to the editor,” New York Times, 4 May 1916.Google Scholar

24 American entry into the war culminated the increasing support for the Allied cause at Michigan, including the beginning of voluntary military drill on campus and lectures organized by Hobbs arguing for military preparedness. Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 141–42; Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 46–80; Willis Rudy, The Campus and a Nation in Crisis: From the American Revolution to Vietnam (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996), 104–20.Google Scholar

25 Fletcher to Sawyer, Walter Hume, 15 April 1917, Box 3, Walter, H. Sawyer Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Sawyer Papers); Marwil, History of Ann Arbor, 97.Google Scholar

26 Orton was a wealthy New York lawyer. Smith, Shirley called the organization of alumni “the most far-reaching” of Hutchins’ accomplishments, and Wilcox identified the irony in the power that they developed. Smith, Harry Burns Hutchins, 218; Wilcox, , “World War I,” 80; Orton to Fellow Alumnus, 26 August 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

27 Clements to Van Tyne, 22 September 1917, Box 1, Van Tyne Papers.Google Scholar

28 One student, Cannon, Laura, was unable to remember any of the specifics until after she learned of the statements of her classmates. Another first stated that he had no recollection of Eggert's comments but then changed his testimony when approached again. Cannon to Hobbs, 19 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Cannon to Hobbs, 30 August 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Cole, J. Herbert to Hobbs, , 22 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Roberta Deam to Hobbs, 14 August 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Faith Muller to Hobbs, 22 August 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Hobbs to Hutchins, , 15 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Hobbs to Hutchins, 18 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers.Google Scholar

29 Eggert, to Hutchins, , 27 September 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers; Eggert to Hutchins, 10 October 1917, Box 11, Regents Papers.Google Scholar

30 Other than the appearance of Eggert, Hobbs, and Scholl; a newspaper report that Eggert intended to read a prepared statement; and Eggert's inability to confront his student accusers, no verifiable details of the meeting remain. Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1914–1917), 5; Hutchins to Bulkley, 9 December 1915, Box 10, Hutchins Papers; Wilcox, “World War I,” 63; “Prof. Eggert, C. on the Carpet Before Board,” Ann Arbor Daily News, 12 October 1917; Eggert to Hutchins, 16 October 1917, Box 4, Hutchins Papers; Smith, , Harry Burns Hutchins, 198.Google Scholar

31 Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1914–17), 9.Google Scholar

32 Eggert to Hutchins, Harry B., 16 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Lucius L. Hubbard to C.E. Eggert, 2 November 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

33 Hubbard to Eggert, 2 November 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

34 Hutchins to Eggert, 29 December 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

35 Hutchins to EL. Bliss, 26 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

36 Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 146.Google Scholar

37 Tyne, Van to Paxson, Frederic L., 12 April 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers.Google Scholar

38 Hutchins privately accused all but Ficken of being pro-German. Orton to Hutchins, 25 March 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Orton, 18 April 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Orton to Hutchins, 21 May 1918, Box 3, Sawyer Papers; Harry Bodman to Hutchins, 1 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Fletcher, Frank W., 27 May 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers; Wilcox, “World War I”; Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1917–20), 159.Google Scholar

39 Florer, to Smith, Shirley W., 7 March 1918, Box 14, Papers, Hutchins; Florer, Warren W., “Letter to the editor,” Christian Science Monitor, 7 September 1918, Box 1, Florer Papers; Hutchins to Frank W. Fletcher, 15 August 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

40 Hutchins, to Bulkley, , 6 May 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

41 It was difficult for removed faculty to continue their careers, although Weigand was able to do so after a short period as a riveter and clerical worker. Eggert obtained a high school teaching position. Florer sold insurance, and Dieterle worked in a family business. Ficken's future remains unknown. Wilcox, , “World War I”; Weigand, Hermann J. and Schmidt, Henry J., “Interview with Weigand, Hermann J. (1892–1985),” in Teaching German in America: Prolegomena to a History, ed. Neseler, David P., Lohnes, Walter F. W., and Nollendorfs, Valters (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, published for Monatshefte, 1988), 285–92.Google Scholar

42 Associate professors and professors were considered “permanent,” while instructors and assistant professors were under fixed-length contracts. Assistant professors were typically employed on three-year contracts, but Florer's and Dieterle's were reduced to one year at the outset of the war. Boucke was forced to return to Germany to resume his career. Wilcox, “World War I”; Orton to Hutchins, 21 May 1918, Box 3, Sawyer Papers.Google Scholar

43 Diekhoff accused others, including Max Winkler of the German Department, but all were permanent and were retained. Orton to Hutchins, 30 September 1917, Box 13, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Orton, 28 February 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Diekhoff to Orton, 1 May 1915, Box 3, Sawyer Papers; Hutchins to Orton, 18 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

44 Olds, J.E. to Hutchins, 16 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

45 “War Strife in Ann Arbor,” Indianapolis News, 1 November 1917.Google Scholar

46 Florer, Warren W., untitled document, Box 1, Florer Papers.Google Scholar

47 Diekhoffto Orton, 1 May 1915, Box 3, Sawyer Papers.Google Scholar

48 Hutchins, to Orton, , 4 December 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Superintendent of Grounds to U.S. Marshal, 26 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Parker, John C. to Hutchins, Harry B., 2 November 1917, Box 14, Papers, Hutchins; Mortimer, E. Cooley to Hutchins, 9 November 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Daniel Quick to Hutchins, 31 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

49 Ruthven, to Reighard, Jacob E., 2 April 1918, Box 8, Jacob, E. Reighard Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Reighard Papers). See also Ruthven to Reighard, 24 April 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Koelz, Walter, “Discussions Relative to European War,” 26 April 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers.Google Scholar

50 Ruthven, to Reighard, , 28 April 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Reighard to Coker, R.E., 24 May 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Coker to Reighard, 26 May 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Reighard to Coker, 24 June 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Reighard to Koelz, 25 June 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Coker to Reighard, 24 October 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Reighard to Coker, R.E., 8 January 1919, Box 8, Reighard Papers; Jacob Reighard to Koelz, 15 January 1919, Box 8, Reighard Papers.Google Scholar

51 Hutchins, to Orton, , 28 February 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Cooley, Mortimer E. to Orton, 26 June 1918, Box 15, Papers, Hutchins. Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1917–20), 245; Wilcox, “World War I”; Smith, , Harry Burns Hutchins, 200.Google Scholar

52 Cooley to Orton, 2 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

53 Cooley to Orton, 26 June 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

54 Cooley, to Hutchins, , 31 July 1919, Box 9, University of Michigan College of Engineering Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Engineering Papers); Gore to Bates, Henry M., 28 February 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Edson Sunderland to Bates, 7 March 1918, Box 1, Henry Moore Bates Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Bates Papers); Aigler, Ralph W. to Bates, 10 April 1918, Box 1, Bates Papers.Google Scholar

55 “Warns of Anarchy Here,” Baltimore Sun, 24 March 1918; Hutchins to Chase Osborn, 9 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers; Hutchins to Osborn, 9 April 1918, Box 15, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

56 Kustermann was likely one of the instructors warned to avoid living with the Aliens for fear of bringing suspicion upon themselves. Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, Tenderness and Turmoil, 196–98; Angoff, Charles, “The Higher Learning Goes to War,” American Mercury 11 (June 1927): 177–91.Google Scholar

57 Parker, to Hutchins, , 12 June 1918, Emil Lorch Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan; Hutchins to Bulkley, 15 March 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers. Parker did not identify the American Protective League (APL) by name. The APL was organized with the approval of the Justice Department to help supplement its efforts to defeat disloyalty. Branches were organized in 650 towns. Joan M. Jensen, Price of Vigilance (Chicago: McNally, Rand, 1968).Google Scholar

58 Bates to Hutchins, 13 April 1918, Box 1, Bates Papers; Hutchins to Bates, 17 April 1918, Box 1, Bates Papers; Van Tyne to Clements, 29 April 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers.Google Scholar

59 Tyne, Van to Clements, , 29 April 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers; Van Tyne to Turner, E.R., 14 April 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers; Van Tyne to Turner, 7 May 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers.Google Scholar

60 Eggert to Lovejoy, Arthur O., 1 January 1918, Box 24, Arthur, O. Lovejoy Papers, Special Collections, Milton, S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University (hereafter cited as Lovejoy Papers); Theophil Hildebrandt to Martha J. Hildebrandt, 1 September 1919, Box 1, Theophil Henry Hildebrandt Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Hildebrandt Papers); J.A. Mosenfelder to Hutchins, 4 December 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

61 Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 7 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 196–98.Google Scholar

62 Tyne, Van to McElroy, Robert M., 29 November 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers. Diekhoff had previously accused Scott of being pro-German as part of his correspondence with Orton.Google Scholar

63 Stoddard, Lothrop and Frank, Glenn, Stakes of the War: Summary of the Various Problems, Claims and Interests of the Nations at the Peace Table (New York: Century, 1918); Van Tyne to Aydelotte, 11 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Aydelotte to Van Tyne, 18 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Tyne, Van to Aydelotte, 24 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Claude, H. Van Tyne, “Letter to the editor,” Michigan Daily, 24 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Tyne, Van to McElroy, Robert, 29 November 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Aydelotte to Van Tyne, 2 December 1918, Box 2, Papers, Van Tyne; Tyne, Van to Aydelotte, 7 December 1918, Box 2, Van Tyne Papers. For more on textbook controversies, see Joseph Moreau, Schoolbook Nation: Conflicts over American History Textbooks from the Civil War to the Present (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003), 175–218.Google Scholar

64 Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 118–62, 238–44.Google Scholar

65 Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 7 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 198.Google Scholar

66 Cooley, to Hutchins, , 31 July 1919, Box 9, Engineering Papers. Minne Allen indicated that a third faculty member received the same treatment, although research was unable to identify the third person. Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 7 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 196–98.Google Scholar

67 Allen, Edward S., Freedom in Iowa: The Role of the Iowa Civil Liberties Union (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), xv.Google Scholar

68 Cooley, Ziwet to, 5 August 1919, Box 13, Regents Papers.Google Scholar

69 Allen, Edward S. to Hutchins, , 5 August 1919, Box 13, Regents Papers; Ziwet to Cooley, 5 August 1919, Regents Papers; Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 12 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 202.Google Scholar

70 Hildebrandt, Theophil H. to Hildebrandt, Martha J., 1 September 1919, Box 1, Hildebrandt Papers.Google Scholar

71 Cooley, to Hutchins, , 31 July 1919, Box 9, Engineering Papers.Google Scholar

72 Allen, E., Freedom in Iowa, xvi.Google Scholar

73 Allen, was given until the end of the year, rather than end of the term, but any terminal contract proved unacceptable. Ibid., xv.Google Scholar

74 Cooley, to Ziwet, , 3 October 1919, Box 18, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

75 Hutchins, to Cooley, , 6 October 1919, Box 18, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

76 Allen was forced to leave his wife and three children, including a newborn named after Ziwet, in Ann Arbor for the remainder of the semester. In 1921, after a year in West Virginia, he moved his family to Ames, Iowa, and joined the faculty at Iowa State College, on which he served until 1985. He was an active member in the AAUP, the founder of the Iowa Civil Liberties Union, and an advocate for pacifist and civil liberties causes. Minne joined him in many of these activities and, having been educated at the University of Berlin, served as an assistant professor of sociology at Iowa State until state nepotism laws precluded her continued appointment. Edward Allen was one of the few faculty members removed from the University of Michigan to resume a scholarly career in the United States, joining Weigand and Marckwardt. Although not definitive, their resignations in lieu of public protests appear to have aided their ability to continue in faculty positions. Certainly Allen and Marckwardt left the institution without the attention surrounding Eggert and others. Weigand resigned his position, which might be seen as an alternative to both the “Ely model” and the “Beemis [sic] confrontation model,” as termed by Barrow, Clyde W., who drew on Mary, O. Furner's work. Richard, T. Ely shifted from principled socialism to pragmatic career advancement when his academic freedom was challenged and was thus able keep his position. Edward, W. Bemis publicly rebutted his accusers and forfeited his academic standing. Allen, Weigand, and Marckwardt neither renounced their politics nor abandoned their causes; rather, they left the institution without public protest and maintained careers. Allen, E., Freedom in Iowa; University Archives, “Edward Switzer Allen,” Iowa State University Library, http://www.lib.iastate.edu/spcl/exhibits/150/template/allen.html; Barrow, Clyde W., Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894–1928 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 188–89; Furner, Mary O., Advocacy and Objectivity: A Crisis in the Professionalization of American Social Science, 1865–1905 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975).Google Scholar

77 Allen, Edward S. to National Civil Liberties Bureau, 31 July 1919, American Civil Liberties Union Archives: The Roger Baldwin Years, 1911–1950 (Washington, DC: Scholarly Resources, 1996), microform, Reel 15, vol. 109.Google Scholar

78 Cooley, to Hutchins, , 31 July 1919, Box 9, Engineering Papers.Google Scholar

79 Marckwardt accepted a position at the public college in Detroit that would become Wayne State University; Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1917–20), 704.Google Scholar

80 Hutchins, Harry B., “Democracy Now, What Next,” Box 19, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

81 Hobbs, William H., Michigan Daily, 19 January 1921; “Wise Demands Hobbs’ Proof,” Detroit News, 27 January 1921; “Rabbi Demands Hobbs Prove It,” Detroit Free Press, 27 January 1921.Google Scholar

82 This claim was based in part on Alfred Lloyd's December 1918 University Senate proposal to disassociate the institution from the NSL and ban NSL events on campus. The proposal was tabled. Lloyd, A.H., “Statement in re the Hobbs–Security League–University Matter,” Box 1, William, H. Hobbs Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Hobbs Papers); Hobbs to Lloyd, 19 December 1918, Box 1, Papers, Hobbs; Hobbs, “Reply of the Chairman of the Ann Arbor Branch, National Security League, to a Communication from Dean Lloyd Addressed to Its Executive Committee,” 20 December 1918, Box 1, Hobbs Papers; Van Tyne to Lloyd, 19 December 1918, Box 1, Hobbs Papers.Google Scholar

83 Martsen, , “Professor William A. Schaper”; “Hobbs Rejects Hari-Kari [sic] Bill,” Detroit Journal, 28 January 1921; Burton to Hobbs, 12 February 1921, Box 1, Hobbs Papers; Hobbs to Burton, 14 February 1921, Box 1, Hobbs Papers; Proceedings of the Board of Regents, University of Michigan (1920–23), 79.Google Scholar

84 For discussions of historians during World War I, see Blakey, George T., Historians on the Homefront: American Propagandists for the Great War (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1970); Gruber, Mars and Minerva, 120–37; Novick, Peter, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 111–32.Google Scholar

85 Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 130.Google Scholar

86 Hutchins, to Brown, L. Ames, Box 14, Papers, Hutchins. Michigan faculty appeared to play relatively little role in the CPI due to their other commitments. Faculty from the University of Illinois were most well-represented among the CPI work, with Mock and Larson also specifically noting faculty from the Universities of Minnesota, Chicago, and Wisconsin as well as Columbia and Princeton Universities. Mock and Larson, Words That Won the War, 160. See also Stephen Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).Google Scholar

87 Scholl, John William, “Letter to the editor,” New York Times, 12 August 1917; Hobbs, W.H. to Postmaster General (Secret Service Section), 26 September 1917, Box 1, Hobbs Papers; Hobbs to Third Assistant Postmaster General, 17 October 1917, Box 1, Hobbs Papers; Hobbs, William H., “Veblen's Book as an Aid to Kaiserism,” New York Times, 17 March 1918.Google Scholar

88 “Editorial Notes,” New Republic 14 (23 February 1918): 94.Google Scholar

89 Curti, Merle and Carstensen, Vernon, The University of Wisconsin: A History, 1848–1925 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1949), 2: 117–19; “A Correspondence with the University of Wisconsin,” Box 1, Hobbs Papers.Google Scholar

90 Angoff, , “Higher Learning,” 177.Google Scholar

91 “Security League Rebuked by Creel,” New York Times, 13 September 1918; “A General Neglect of Duties,” New York Times, 14 September 1918; “Creel Scores Dr. Van Tyne,” Washington Post, 13 September 1918; “The National Security League Is Guilty of False Imputations,” n.d., Box 3, Van Tyne Papers.Google Scholar

92 Novick, , That Noble Dream, 120.Google Scholar

93 “Report of the Committee on Academic Freedom and Academic Tenure,” in American Higher Education: A Documentary History, ed. Hofstadter, Richard and Smith, Wilson (December 1915; repr., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), 2: 870.Google Scholar

94 Young, Allyn A. to Lovejoy, Arthur O., 27 October 1917, Box 24, Lovejoy Papers; Young to Lovejoy, 5 November 1917, Box 24, Lovejoy Papers.Google Scholar

95 “Report of the Committee on Academic Freedom in Wartime,” AA UP Bulletin 4 (February–March 1918): 29–47.Google Scholar

96 Ibid., 40–41.Google Scholar

97 Only one member of Committee, A, Hodder, F.H. of the University of Kansas, objected to the statement, arguing that it was far too restrictive. Hodder to Arthur O. Lovejoy, 29 January 1918, Box 24, Lovejoy Papers.Google Scholar

98 Metzger, , Academic Freedom; Wilcox, “World War I”; Gruber, Mars and Minerva; Sheila Slaughter, “The Danger Zone: Academic Freedom and Civil Liberties,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 448 (March 1980): 46–61.Google Scholar

99 Marsden, George, The Soul of the American University: From Protestant Establishment to Established Nonbelief (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 309; Hobbs, to Young, Allyn A., 17 October 1917, Box 24, Lovejoy Papers; Hobbs to Young, 17 October 1917, Box 24, Lovejoy Papers; Dewey, John and Lovejoy, to Reeves, Jesse Siddall, 17 November 1914, Box 2, Siddall, Jesse Reeves Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Reeves Papers); Reeves to wife, 16 October 1917, Box 2, Reeves Papers; Beth, H.Jackson to Hutchins, 14 October 1917, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Eggert to Lovejoy, 1 January 1917, Box 24, Lovejoy Papers; Wilcox, “World War I,” 64.Google Scholar

100 Allen, Edward S. to National Civil Liberties Bureau, 31 July 1919, ACLU Archives, Reel 15, vol. 109.Google Scholar

101 DeSilver, to Allen, E., 5 August 1919, ACLU Archives, Reel 15, vol. 109.Google Scholar

102 See files in ACLU Archives, Reel 5, vol. 40, and ACLU Archives, Reel 15, vol. 109.Google Scholar

103 The statement was based on a survey of one member at each institution. Approximately one-third of the surveys, or close to fifty, were returned in time to be considered. Gruber cites this source in claiming: “The historical record suggests that there were more cases of persons losing their jobs because of attitudes or activities relating to the war than previously had been accounted for.” “Report of Committee U on Patriotic Service,” Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors 5 (March 1919): 29–32, 34; Gruber, Mars and Minerva, 174.Google Scholar

104 These included one extra-institutional investigation and two dismissals that took place after the war ended. Angoff, “Higher Learning.”Google Scholar

105 Curti, Merle, “The American Scholar in Three Wars,” Journal of the History of Ideas 3 (June 1942): 241–64.Google Scholar

106 The twenty-one cases included three where the situation was predominantly extra-institutional and several in which faculty maintained their positions. They do not include four identified by Angoff or one identified by Gruber. Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 108; Angoff, “Higher Learning”; Gruber, Mars and Minerva, 174.Google Scholar

107 Tolzmann, Don Heinrich, The Germanic Museum and Its Creator, Cincinnati Occasional Papers in German-American Studies 6 (Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati, 2005), 10.Google Scholar

108 “9 Girls, Colleges Express Loyalty,” Washington Post, 31 March 1917; Rudy, Campus and a Nation, 120; “Decries Academic Treason,” Washington Post, 20 October 1917.Google Scholar

109 “Is Hatred of the German in the Present Crisis a Duty?,” Current Opinion 65 (December 1918): 383–384; Galpin, W. Freeman, Syracuse University (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1960), 2: 379.Google Scholar

110 Young, Allyn A. to Tyler, H.W., 14 June 1917, Box 24, Lovejoy Papers.Google Scholar

111 Galpin, , Syracuse University, 387.Google Scholar

112 Tap, “Suppression of Dissent.”Google Scholar

113 Solberg, Winton U., “William Abbott Oldfather: Making the Classics Relevant to Modern Life,” in No Boundaries: University of Illinois Vignettes, ed. Hoddeson, Lillian (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 69–87, 76; Feer, Robert A., “Academic Freedom at State Universities: The University of Illinois, 1867–1950, A Case Study” (honor's thesis, Harvard College, 1950), 9.Google Scholar

114 Nicholas, , “Academic Dissent,” 79–81.Google Scholar

115 Glaser, Otto to Reighard, 22 June 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers.Google Scholar

116 Rudy, , Campus and a Nation, 120; Laidler, Harry W., “Academic Freedom,” in The American Labor Year Book, 1919–1920, ed. Alexander Trachtenberg (New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1920), 86–89.Google Scholar

117 “Woman Clears Dr. Scheidt,” New York Times, 5 March 1918.Google Scholar

118 Nicholas, , “Academic Dissent,” 188–94; Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 105–6.Google Scholar

119 Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 175; William E. Nicholas, “World War I and Academic Dissent in Texas,” Arizona and the West 14 (Autumn 1972): 215–30.Google Scholar

120 Lloyd, to Vibbert, Charles B., 29 October 1918, Box 1, Alfred Henry Lloyd Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan.Google Scholar

121 Reighard specifically noted that most institutions, including Michigan, were not adhering to the statement's principles. Reighard to R.E. Coker, 24 June 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers.Google Scholar

122 Smith, , Harry Burns Hutchins, 187. For materials on William Bohn's “retirement,” see folders 22, 24, 30, and 31, Box 1, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

123 Hobbs, to Hutchins, , 2 December 1915, Box 1, Hobbs Papers.Google Scholar

124 Wilcox speculated that the attention garnered by Columbia's dismissals may have informed Hutchins’ actions. Wilcox, “World War I,” 67.Google Scholar

125 Allen, M. to Müller-Liebenwalde, Julie, 7 August 1919, Tenderness and Turmoil, 196–98.Google Scholar

126 Cooley, to Ziwet, , 3 October 1919, Box 18, Hutchins Papers.Google Scholar

127 Gruber, , Mars and Minerva, 174.Google Scholar

128 With Koelz's loyalty in doubt, Reighard wrote that there was “practically no chance of finding academic employment. Dean Lloyd tells me that nearly every inquiry that reaches him about graduate students raises questions of their loyalty.” Reighard to Koelz, 25 June 1918, Box 8, Reighard Papers.Google Scholar

129 Wilcox, , “World War I”; Hobbs, William H., “The University in War Service,” in The University of Michigan: An Encyclopedic Survey, ed. Shaw, Wilfred B. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1942), 1:194–203; Smith, Harry Burns Hutchins, 198–200; Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 145–47.Google Scholar

130 Wilcox, , “World War I”; Hutchins to Shurmer, E.D., 9 March 1918, Box 14, Hutchins Papers; Wiley, Norman L., “The Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures,” in The University of Michigan: An Encyclopedic Survey, ed. Wilfred B. Shaw (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1942), 1: 595–602.Google Scholar