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Turning-points of Post-communist Transition: Lessons from the Case of Estonia1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2014

Andrus Park
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Type
Case Study
Information
Government and Opposition , Volume 29 , Issue 3 , 01 July 1994 , pp. 403 - 413
Copyright
Copyright © Government and Opposition Ltd 1994

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References

2 Raun, Toivo U., Estonia and the Estonians, 2nd edition, Stanford, CA, Hoover Institution Press, 1991 Google Scholar; Taagepera, Rein, Estonia: Return to Independence, Boulder, Westview Press, 1993 Google Scholar.

3 Andrus, Park, ‘From Perestroika to Cold Civil War Reflections on the Soviet Disintegration Crisis’, Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol. 22, No. 3, 1991, pp. 257–64Google Scholar; Andrus Park, ‘CSCE, Minority Issues, and the Soviet Disintegration Crisis’, in Wyatt, Marilyn (ed.), CSCE and the Nov Blueprint Jot Europe, Washington, DC, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, 1991, pp. 59–63 Google Scholar; Andrus, Park, ‘Beyond Perestroika’, Theory and Society, Vol. 20, 1991, pp. 689–96Google Scholar; Andrus, Park, ‘The Post-Soviet System of States’, Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1992, pp. 11–16.Google Scholar

4 Timur, Kuran, ‘Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolutions of 1989’, World Polities, Vol. 44, 10 1991, p. 37.Google Scholar

5 Motyl, Alexander, ‘Building Bridges and Changing Landmarks: Theory and Concepts in the Study of Soviet Nationalities’, in: Motyl, Alexander (ed.). Thinking Theoretically About Soviet Nationalities, New York, Columbia University Press, 1992, p. 268 Google Scholar.

6 Other authors have also used the word ‘post-communist’ in this sense. See: Russell, Bova, ‘Political Dynamics of the Post-Communist Transition’, World Polities, Vol. 44, 10 1991, pp. 113–38Google Scholar

7 Skocpol, Theda, States and Social Revolutions, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 287 Google Scholar.

8 David, Kowalevski, ‘Periphery Revolutions in World-System Perspective, 1821–1985’, Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 24, 1991, p. 83.Google Scholar

9 Walt, Stephen M., ‘Revolution and War’, World Politics, Vol. 44. 04 1992, p. 323 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Charles, Tilly, ‘Singular Models of Revolution: Impossible but Fruitful’, Center for Studies of Social Change. New School of Social Research. The Working Paper Series, No. 138, 12 06 1992, p. 17.Google Scholar

11 Priit Jirve has offered a more complicated scheme of possible developments, using the following symbols: CT (communist totalitarianism), CA (communist authoritarianism), PCA (post-communist authoritarianism), and PCP (post-communist pluralism). See: Järve, Priit, ‘The Baltics of the Early 1990s. Between Democracy and Authoritarianism’, Politiikka, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1992, pp. 308–15.Google Scholar My use of symbols is closer to that which can be found in: Huntington, Samuel P., The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991, pp. 43–45 Google Scholar.

12 Cf. also: Panicko, Christopher J., ‘Turkmenistan Unaffected by Winds of Democratic Change’, RFE/RL Research Report, Vol. 2, No. 4, 22 01 1993, pp. 6–10.Google Scholar

13 Cf. Bess, Brown, ‘Central Asia: The First Year of Unexpected Statehood’, RFE/RL Research Report, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1 01 1993, p. 30.Google Scholar

14 See also: Andrus, Park, ‘Ideological Dimension of the Post-Communist Domestic Conflicts’, Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 26, No. 3, 09 1993, pp. 269–70.Google Scholar

15 My conceptualization is greatly influenced by Zbigniew Brzezinski’s ‘three-layer’ model of the Soviet empire. See: Brzezinski, Zbigniew, Game Plan: A Geostrategic Framework for the Conduct of the U.S. Soviet Contest, New York, The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1986, p. 16 Google Scholar.

16 I tried to analyse the Kremlin-versus-Moscow-controversy in: Andrus, Park, ‘From Perestroika to Cold Civil War’, Bulletin of Pact Proposals, Vol. 22, No. 3, 09 1991, pp. 257–64.Google Scholar

17 I think that most Sovietologies theories about the original intentions of Gorbachev and other reformers are not verifiable. See Andrus, Park, ‘Gorbachev and the Role of Personality in History’, Studies in Comparation Communism, Vol. 25, No. 1, 03 1992, pp. 50–51.Google Scholar

18 Apparently Gorbachev’s behaviour in those years corresponded to what George Breslauer had denoted as ‘prescription No. 2’ for transitional leadership: ‘Mobilize new forces into politics that will ally with reformist forces in the establishment’. See George Breslauer, ‘Evaluating Gorbachev as Leader’, in Hewett, A. and Winston, Victor H. (eds), Milestones in Glasnost and Perestroiks: Politics and People, Washington, DC, The Brookings Institution, 1991, p. 411 Google Scholar.

19 Hough, William J. H., ‘The Annexation of the Baltic States and Its Effect on the Development of Law Prohibiting Forcible Seizure of Territory’, New York Law School Journal of International and Comparativs Law, Vol. 6, No. 2, Winter 1985, pp. 480–81.Google Scholar

20 Samuel P. Huntington, ‘The Clash of Civilizations?’, Foreign Affairs, Summer 1993, p. 30.

21 Gellner, Ernest, ‘Nationalism in the Vacuum’, in Motyl, Alexander (ed.), Thinking Theoretically About Socite Nationality, New York, Columbia University Press, 1992, p. 246.Google Scholar

22 Silvia Öispuu, Cf. (ed.), Eesti ajalugu ãrkamisajast kuni tänapãcvani (History of Estonia From the Era of Awakening to the Present), Tallinn, Koolibri, 1992, p. 269.Google Scholar

23 There are now several written accounts of political opposition in Estonia under Soviet rule. See for example: Mare, Kukk, ‘Poliitiline oposiuioon Eestis nöukogude perioodil’ (Political Opposition in Estonia in the Soviet Period). Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Social Sciences, Vol. 40, No. 3, 1991, pp. 229–48Google Scholar; Viktor, Niitsoo, ‘Eesti rahvuslik vastupanuliikumine aastail 1968–1975’ (Estonian National Resistance Movement, 1968–1975), Akadecmic, Vol. 5, No. 9, 1993, pp. 1819–33.Google Scholar

24 Yeltsin, Boris, Against the Grain, New York, Summit Books, 1990, p. 139 Google Scholar.

25 Raun, Toivo U., Estonia and the Estonians, second edition, Stanford, CA, Hoover Institution Press, 1991, p. 238 Google Scholar; Kelder, Jaan and Mustmeu, Indrek (eds), Keda me balisime? (Whom did we Elect?), Tartu, Tartumaa, 1993, p. 231 Google Scholar.

26 Jögi, Mall (ed.), Eesti NSV loominguliste liitude juhatuste ühispleenum 1.–2.aprilli 1988 (The Joint Plenum of the Boards of the Creative Unions of the Estonian SSR, April 1–2, 1988), Tallinn, Eesti Raamat, 1988, pp. 5–231 Google Scholar.

27 Raun, Toivo U., Estonia and the Estonians, Second edition, Stanford, CA, Hoover Institution Prew, 1991, p. 223 Google Scholar; Taagepera, Rein, Estonia: Return to Independence, Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1993, p. 123 Google Scholar. About similar developments in Latvia and Lithuania see: Smith, Graham (ed.), The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union, London, Longman, 1990, pp. 62–63 Google Scholar and 79–80.

28 Taagepera, Rein, Estonia: Return to Independence, Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1993, pp. 120–24Google Scholar. The role of Green issues at the early stages of anti-totalitarian movements has been noted by many authors. See for example: Nick, Manning, ‘T. H. Marshall, Jurgen Habermas, Citizenship and Transition in Eastern Europe’, World Development, Vol. 21, No. 8, 1993, pp. 1322–23.Google Scholar

29 See: Nömm, J. and Ottenson, A. (eds), Rahvakongress (People’s Congress,), Tallinn, Perioodika, 1988 Google Scholar; Alexandras, Shtromas, ‘How Political Are Social Movements in the Baltic Republics Nationalities Papers, Vol. 18, No. 2, Fall 1990, pp. 15–21.Google Scholar A detailed study of the emergence of various social movements in Estonia as well as their typology is presented in: Rein, Ruutsoo, ‘Transitional Society and Social Movements in Estonia, 1987–1991’, Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences. Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 42, No. 2, 1993, pp. 195–214.Google Scholar

30 Revue Baltique, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 1991, p. 132.

31 Jöeste, Marje and Kaevats, Ülo (eds), The Baltic Slates: A Reference Book, Tallinn, Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers, 1991, p. 22 Google Scholar.

32 Naan, Gustav (ed.), Eesti Nöukogude Entsüklopeedia (Estonian Soviet Eycyclopedia), Vol. 2, Tallinn, Valgus, 1987, p. 256 Google Scholar.

33 Raun, Toivo U., Estonia and the Estonians, 2nd edition, Stanford, CA, Hoover Institution Press, 1991, p. 228 Google Scholar.

34 Kiris, Advig (ed.), Restoration of At Independence of the Republic of Estonia. Selection of Legal Acts (1988–1991), Tallinn, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1991, pp. 4 Google Scholar and 6.

35 About the important roles played by the Supreme Council and the Estonian Congress in 1990 – 91, see Taagepera, Rein, Estonia: Return to Independence, Boulder, Westview Press, 1993, pp. 170–232 Google Scholar.

36 See the list of those conditions for example in: Halperin, Morton, et al., Silf-Determination in the New World Order, Washington, DC, Carnegie Endowment, 1992, pp. 88–9Google Scholar.

37 Riina, Kionka, ‘Free-Market Coalition Assumes Power in Estonia’, RFE/RL Research Report, Vol. 1, No. 46, 20 11 1992, pp. 6–11.Google Scholar

38 The Baltic Independent, 21–27 May 1993, p. 1.

39 Cf. criticisms of Estonia’s human rights record in: Helsinki Watch, Vol. 4, No. 7, 15 April 1992, p. 6; Freedom Review, Vol. 24, No. 1, February 1993, p. 8. About the interpretations of the notion of democracy and its applicability to the Baltic cases see also: Anckar, Dag and Jurgaitene, Komelija (eds), Democracy in Theory and Practice, Åbo, Åbo Academy, 1993, pp. 3–139 Google Scholar.

40 The Baltic Independent, 22–28 October 1993, p. 1.

41 Charles, Tilly, ‘Singular Models of Revolution: Impossible but Fruitful’, Center for Studies of Social Change. New School for Social Research. The Working Paper Series, No. 138, 12 06 1992, pp. 17–20.Google Scholar