Surveillance of certain respiratory viral infections by applying immunofluorescence (IF) examinations to samples of nasopharyngeal secretions has been evaluated using a simplified procedure for the preparation of cell smears. Samples from 711 children living in different parts of Norway were examined during the winter 1982/83 and a positive diagnosis was made for 290 children (41%). Temporal epidemic peaks were observed for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), parainfluenza virus type 3 and influenza virus. On the other hand, the monthly number of negative samples was almost constant throughout the period. Differences in timing of RSV outbreaks were observed between two regions in Norway. Compared to rapid IF diagnosis, RSV notifications obtained by serological examinations were delayed by several weeks. Rapid virus diagnosis by IF examinations with our simplified procedure for preparation of nasopharyngeal samples seems to be suitable for the epidemiological surveillance of respiratory viral infections, both for its simplicity of preparation of the samples and for its accuracy in defining the time of the actual virus infection. Nevertheless, the method is not without pitfalls; a close cooperation between those who take the specimens and the laboratory is essential, and the IF examinations should be performed by an experienced microscopist.

A standard technique for ascertaining the survival characteristics of bacteria after being environmentally stressed is to incubate the bacteria on both selective and non-selective media and count the colonies produced. Based on these colony counts, indexes of injury and persistence of the bacteria are calculated. To compare the stress of two different environments, a persistence ratio is calculated. In this paper, methods of statistical inference concerning these indexes and ratios are presented. These statistical methods use well-known procedures for analysis of binomial data and 2 × 2 table data, and are appropriate when the colony counts follow a Poisson distribution.

The phenomena produced by colonies of streptococci on blood-agar plates have long been used by medical bacteriologists for classification purposes. An examination of the literature showed that only a few contradictory data were available for the corresponding phenomena induced by the saprophytic lactic acid bacteria. A systematic investigation into the types of “haemolysis” and discoloration phenomena produced by typed cultures of lactic acid bacteria was therefore carried out to ascertain whether the blood-agar plate was of any use in the routine classification of these bacteria. The monograph of Brown (1919), which has been generally accepted as the standard work on the subject, is regarded as a standard of reference in the present paper.

The EPIET Alumni Network (EAN) is an association of professionals who have completed field epidemiology or public health microbiology training programmes in the European Union. In 2013, we conducted a survey of EAN members to investigate this network's role within European public health. We distributed an online questionnaire to members registered at the time, collecting data on demographics, professional background, and attitudes towards EAN. Out of 362 registered members, 189 (52%) responded; 97% were from Europe; 65% were female. Their mean age was 39 years. The highest academic qualification was PhD for 44% and Master's degree for 55%. The majority (60%) worked in public health institutes. They were especially satisfied with having access to job offers and professional networking via EAN, but requested more learning opportunities and knowledge-sharing between members. EAN is a unique platform where highly skilled professionals can connect to control infectious diseases locally and internationally. Having a network of professionals that know each other, speak the same ‘language’, and can easily access each other's expertise, represents an important resource for European and global public health, which should be nurtured by encouraging more collaborations devoted to professional development.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a cattle respiratory disease that represents one of the major threats to cattle health and production in sub-Saharan Africa. The transmission contact rate of CBPP plays a key role in the spreading dynamics of the disease. We have developed an approach based on the combination of a SEIR model describing the spread of CBPP with the dynamic of seroconversion to determine the transmission contact rate for CBPP. This method has been subsequently applied to serological diagnostic data obtained from an experimental vaccine trial. As a result, we find that the transmission contact rates for subclinical, clinical and chronic infective states are respectively, 0·084/N, 0·45 and 0·14/N per animal per day, where N is the herd population size, and the basic reproductive number corresponding to this trial (N=28) is R0=27.

The purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) in the region of Western Greece and its relationship with possible predisposing factors. Two 1-day prevalence studies were performed in all hospitals of the region. The average HAI prevalence was 2·9% (range 0–6·8%) in the hospitals and 0–22·7% between different medical wards. Overall, 90% of HAI patients had predisposing factors. The most frequently isolated microorganism was Escherichia coli (14·3%). The study revealed a relatively low overall point prevalence of HAI, but remarkable discrepancies between the hospitals and wards. This may be due to the presence of confounding medical conditions and/or underreporting of HAIs from certain hospital wards. Local point-prevalence surveys may increase the awareness of HAIs in hospital staff and contribute to the establishment of effective infection control.

A strain of Trypanosoma brucei when recently introduced into mice and imperfectly accommodated to this species of host produced infections relatively resistant to various trypanocidal drugs. On the other hand, when the strain had become highly accommodated and its pathogenicity increased to a maximum as the result of repeated passages, infected animals were readily cured. The exact mechanism on which this difference in resistance may depend has not been investigated. Attention is directed, however, to the important fact that the drugs acted poorly when the strain was in an attenuated state, as shown by the prolonged course of infection and the occurrence of marked fluctuations in the number of parasites present in the blood. Thus the chemotherapeutic response was weak at the time when the host itself was able to exercise an effective resistance. Later, when the host's resistance had become negligible, the curative action of the drugs was pronounced.

A sterile suspension containing 950 mouse LD50 per ml of type C botulinum toxin was exposed for various periods to different temperatures. The time required for the 99% (hundred-fold) reduction of toxicity was more than 5 years at -70°C or -20°C, 6 montha at +5 °C, 3 weeks at +20 °C, 2 weeks at +28 °C, 2 days at +37 °C, 9h at +42°C, less than 30 min at 56 °C, less than 20 min at +60 °C, and below 5 min at +80 °C. The results suggest that Clostridium botulinum type C toxin, if produced in an ecosystem of the mild climatic zone, might persist there over the winter season and cause the intoxication of vertebrates next carly spring in the absence of further microbial toxigenesis.

This research compared public opinions about Escherichia coli O157 (an increasing environmental hazard associated with livestock) in two farming areas with contrasting incidence of E. coli O157 disease. A questionnaire was administered in rural Grampian (10·8 cases/100 000 population per year) and North Wales (2·5 cases/100 000 population per year). Awareness was highest among farmers in Grampian (91%) and lowest among visitors to both areas (28%). Respondents were more likely to indicate vomiting (76%) than bloody diarrhoea (48%) as a common symptom. Undercooked meat and contact with farm animal faeces were identified by 60% of all respondents as risk factors who described ‘basic hygiene’ for risk reduction indoors. Visitors view E. coli O157 as a food hazard, not an environmental hazard that produces vomiting not dysentery. Efforts to reduce human infections in livestock farming areas could be improved with proximate reminders for visitors of the environmental pathway of E. coli O157 infection.

In an article (Scholtens, 1937) published elsewhere, I have shown that the external smooth properties of typhoid bacilli (stability in physiological salt solution and colony form) depend on the body antigens, not only on the O antigen but also on the Vi antigen.

The experimental method for, and analysis of, more than 300 determinations of air influx rates into two unheated ‘closed rooms’ of opposite aspects each fitted (a) with wall grating, or (b) with flue, are described. The average relative efficacy for all observed wind velocities of (a) of 50 sq.in. to (b) of 15 sq.in., so far as facilitating natural ventilation in the rooms used, is found to be 1·0. The analysis reveals definite and complex relations between influx rate and wind velocity. A correlation is made with data from other sources, principally photographs of the flow forms of air streaming past grounded house models, and a theory is advanced to explain the broad features of the observations. Comparison with similar published work is made, and the fundamental necessity of simultaneous measurement of the speed and direction of the main wind stream is stressed. The advantage of the flue and the importance of openings, other than those in the room concerned, are pointed out.

The author wishes to record that the investigation was commenced at the instigation of Mr Dean Chandler, to whom he is indebted for en-couragement to publish the results of the further examination of the data obtained. He desires also to acknowledge the enthusiastic interest in the experimental work which his colleagues of the Physical Laboratory displayed throughout the investigation.

The measurements of the wind velocity, so essential to the completeness of the observations, frequently necessitated the scaling of roofs in snow, rain and gale, yet at no time were they neglected.

The author thanks Dr E. V. Evans, General Manager and Director of the South Metropolitan Gas Co., for granting permission to publish the paper.

The objective of this study was to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of a culture method and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method for detection of two Campylobacter species: C. jejuni and C. coli. Data were collected during a 3-year survey of UK broiler flocks, and consisted of parallel sampling of caeca from 436 batches of birds by both PCR and culture. Batches were stratified by season (summer/non-summer) and whether they were the first depopulation of the flock, resulting in four sub-populations. A Bayesian approach in the absence of a gold standard was adopted, and the sensitivity and specificity of the PCR and culture for each Campylobacter subtype was estimated, along with the true C. jejuni and C. coli prevalence in each sub-population. Results indicated that the sensitivity of the culture method was higher than that of PCR in detecting both species when the samples were derived from populations infected with at most one species of Campylobacter. However, from a mixed population, the sensitivity of culture for detecting both C. jejuni or C. coli is reduced while PCR is potentially able to detect both species, although the total probability of correctly identifying at least one species by PCR is similar to that of the culture method.

1. The effects of morphine and diacetylmorphine upon the stomach of the cat are variable. The greater number of experiments showed a decrease in tone which was accompanied by a decrease in the frequency and amplitude of movements. Some animals showed an increase in stomach tone accompained by three to five slowly moving contractions of great amplitude while no change were recorded in two cats.

2. Codeine sometimes produced a slight increase in the amplitude of stomach movements with a diminished frequency, while at first the general tone is unaltered. Tone is later reduced slightly to a subnormal level. In other cases it causes a very slight increase in tone and amplitude of movements. These effects are short lived and very small when compared with those produced by morphine or heroin.

3. The effects of dihydromorphinone (dilaudid) upon the stomach are far from constant. Most animals show an immediate relaxation of the stomach with a decrease in the amplitude of the movements. In a series of nine experiments, six showed relaxation of the stomach, two contraction, and in one no changes were recorded.

4. The effects of dihydrocodeinone (dicodid) on the stomach resemble those of codeine. They consist of a small gradual increase in tone followed by a relaxation to a subnormal level.

5. Dihydro-oxycodeinone (eukodol) produces effects which resemble those of dihydrocodeinone (dicodid).

6. All these drugs produce constant effects upon the pyloric sphincter. They all produce an increase in the tone of the sphincter accompanied by an increase in the amplitude of the rhythmical movements. Dilaudid is approximately eight times more active than morphine, while diacetylmorphine is about one and a half times more potent than morphine. The effects of these three drugs last several hours.

The effects of codeine, dicodid and eukodol show a great similarity. They are of short duration and very small when compared with morphine, heroin and dilaudid.

Prevalence monitoring of avian influenza in wild bird populations is important to estimate risks for the occurrence of potentially zoonotic and economically disastrous outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (AIV) in poultry worldwide. A targeted, cost-effective monitoring method for AIV in wild birds was developed, which is based on monitoring results for AIV in Germany and information on the distribution and abundance of wild bird species in selected habitat types. Spatial data were combined with virological and outbreak data for the period of 1 January 2006 to 31 December 2010. Using Germany as an example, we identified 11 indicator species. By concentrating monitoring efforts on these species in spatially confined locations, we propose a targeted and more cost-effective risk-based AIV monitoring approach that can be adapted universally for the identification of wild bird indicator species worldwide with the perspective of reducing sample sizes (and costs) without impairing the validity of the results.

Currently, limited studies have quantified the risk of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) for MRSA-colonized patients on discharge from hospital. Our retrospective, case-control study identified independent risk factors for the development of MRSA SSTIs among such patients detected by active MRSA nasal screening in an acute care hospital by PCR on admission, and bacteriological cultures on discharge. Cases were MRSA-colonized patients aged ⩾18 years who developed a MRSA SSTI post-discharge and controls were those who did not develop a MRSA SSTI post-discharge. Controls were matched to cases by length of follow-up (±10 days) for up to 18 months. Potential demographic and clinical risk factors for MRSA infection were identified using electronic queries and manual chart abstraction; data were compared by standard statistical tests and variables with P values ⩽0·05 in bivariable analysis were entered into a logistic regression model. Multivariable analysis demonstrated prior hospital admission within 12 months (P = 0·02), prior MRSA infection (P = 0·05), and previous myocardial infarction (P = 0·01) were independently predictive of a MRSA SSTI post-discharge. Identification of MRSA colonization upon admission and recognition of risk factors could help identify a high-risk population that could benefit from MRSA SSTI prevention strategies.

Patients with a lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) might be at risk for long-term impaired health status. We assessed whether LRTI patients without Q fever are equally at risk for developing long-term symptoms compared to LRTI patients with Q fever. The study was a cross-sectional cohort design. Long-term health status information of 50 Q fever-positive and 32 Q fever-negative LRTI patients was obtained. Health status was measured by the Nijmegen Clinical Screening Instrument. The most severely affected subdomains of the Q fever-positive group were ‘general quality of life’ (40%) and ‘fatigue’ (40%). The most severely affected subdomains of the Q fever-negative group were ‘fatigue’ (64%) and ‘subjective pulmonary symptoms’ (35%). Health status did not differ significantly between Q fever-positive LRTI patients and Q fever-negative LRTI patients for all subdomains, except for ‘subjective pulmonary symptoms’ (P = 0·048).

The one-point MCA method is very simple to perform nnd useful as a screening test in diagnosing leptospirosis in routine clinical laboratories.

The kit, sensitized with six serovars occurring in Japan, was also useful in detecting serum antibodies of patients with leptospirosis in China.

1. A fluid is described in which cavy sperms react to the most diverse substances almost exactly as do human sperms in human semen. This fluid, called albumen-saline, consists of:

0·9% sodium chloride solution … 0·7 c.c.Egg-white … … … … 2·3 c.c.

2. A detailed description is given of a new technique for comparing the spermicidal powers and rate of disintegration of suppositories (including foam tablets).

3. The new test differs from the old chiefly in allowing only five minutes for the spermicide to act, and in requiring the actual killing of the sperms and not only their immobilisation.

4. Of the commercial suppositories tested, Rendell and Finil are the most spermicidal, followed by Vimule, Speton, Semori, Prorace (chinosol) and Martindale, in that order. None of them is sufficiently spermicidal to encourage complete reliance in the absence of other contraceptive methods.

In almost all investigations relating to ventilation of inhabited buildings determinations of the carbonic acid present in the air are essential. The method in common use is that of Pettenkofer, or some modification of it. This method has, however, the disadvantage that the determinations necessitate the carrying to and from the laboratory of large bottles, and take a considerable time. To overcome these drawbacks several methods capable of being conveniently applied on the spot have been devised, but their accuracy is hardly sufficient for practical purposes, hence they have not come into general use.

Preliminary observations in a systematic study of fifteen bacteriophages isolated from Pseudomonas aeruginosa are described. The evidence as to size, morphology and plaque appearance indicates that this group of phages comprises several distinct types. The electron microscope reveals some of the phages to be simple spheres, but the majority are tailed particles.

The importance of this group in the study of the phenomenon of lysogenicity is pointed out.