A key is provided for the recognition of previously described Encarsia species which are known to attack the tobacco whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genna-dius). 28 nominal species are included, of which type material has been examined for 22. Eight new synonymies are proposed: Encarsia aleyrodis (Mercet) and E. partenopea Masi are both synonymized with E. inaron (Walker); E. bemi-siae (Ishii) is synonymized with E. transvena (Timberlake); E. citri (Ishii) is synonymized with E. strenua (Silvestri), E. angelica Howard and E. deserti Rivnay & Gerling are both synonymized with E. luteola Howard; E. perspicuipennis (Girault) is synonymized with E. quaintancei (Howard); E. tabacivora Viggiani is synonymized with E. pergandiella Howard. E. hispida De Santis is removed from synonymy with E. meritoria Gahan. A lectotype is designated for E. porteri (Mercet). The known distributions and alternative hosts of Encarsia species attacking B. tabaci are provided as well as references to biology and notes on their use in biological control.

Metabarcoding, the coupling of DNA-based species identification and high-throughput sequencing, offers enormous promise for arthropod biodiversity studies but factors such as cost, speed and ease-of-use of bioinformatic pipelines, crucial for making the leapt from demonstration studies to a real-world application, have not yet been adequately addressed. Here, four published and one newly designed primer sets were tested across a diverse set of 80 arthropod species, representing 11 orders, to establish optimal protocols for Illumina-based metabarcoding of tropical Malaise trap samples. Two primer sets which showed the highest amplification success with individual specimen polymerase chain reaction (PCR, 98%) were used for bulk PCR and Illumina MiSeq sequencing. The sequencing outputs were subjected to both manual and simple metagenomics quality control and filtering pipelines. We obtained acceptable detection rates after bulk PCR and high-throughput sequencing (80–90% of input species) but analyses were complicated by putative heteroplasmic sequences and contamination. The manual pipeline produced similar or better outputs to the simple metagenomics pipeline (1.4 compared with 0.5 expected:unexpected Operational Taxonomic Units). Our study suggests that metabarcoding is slowly becoming as cheap, fast and easy as conventional DNA barcoding, and that Malaise trap metabarcoding may soon fulfill its potential, providing a thermometer for biodiversity.

1. Work on the mosquitos frequenting native huts was carried out at Kisumu, Nyanza Province, Kenya, during 1940–41.

2. During preliminary night and day catches in native huts the catching methods were standardised. Subsequently four identical huts were built side by side for comparative work. They were designed specially for easy catching and had hessian ceilings. Apart from catches made for special purposes, 6 day catches and 1 night catch were made every week in one of the huts for an entire year. This hut was regarded as a control. Records of climate were kept in this control hut for a year, the readings being compared with readings taken in a Stevenson screen outside.

3. It was found that the temperature range in the hut was only about half that in the screen—in other words, a native hut is a very well insulated structure. In hot, dry weather there were considerable differences between indoor and outdoor temperatures but in cool wet weather the differences were very small. Thermograph records showed that the form of the daily temperature curve in wet weather was quite different from that in dry weather. Temperature in the hut very rarely fell below the level at which development of the malaria parasite in the mosquito is arrested. In the screen it very frequently did so in the hours before dawn.

4. Hygrograph records of relative humidity in the hut and screen showed much the same characteristics as the temperature readings. Again the range in the hut was much smaller than that in the screen and differences between indoor and screen humidities were great in dry weather and small in wet weather. The form of the daily curve in dry weather differed markedly from the wet weather curve. Saturation deficit at night was always greater in the hut than outside.

5. At night, the climate of a hut containing 10 natives was compared with that of the control hut, containing 1 native. It was found that the crowded hut was slightly warmer than the other and that its relative humidity was somewhat lower than that of the control hut.

6. High wind at night was unusual. When it occurred the entry of mosquitos to huts was stopped for the time being.

7. A list of all species encountered is given, with locality records and sites of capture.

8. From the results of night catches the entry curves of various species were worked out. It was found that in the case of A. gambiae females there is a high population of resting mosquitos at 7 p.m., a period of low entry from 8 to 10 p.m., a period of high entry from 11 p.m. to 5 a.m., and a sharp entry peak at 6 a.m., due to the arrival of females seeking shelter for the day. The same remarks apply to A. funestus females, but the time distribution of the entry periods is different, namely :—7 p.m., a high population of resting mosquitos ; 8 p.m.–2 a.m., a long period of low entry ; 3–5 a.m., a short period of high entry ; 6 a.m., a large entry of females seeking shelter. In the case of both species, most of the females taken were fed, and there is close correlation between the curves for fed and total females. It is thought that females remain in the hut after feeding. Mature females with Group V ovaries enter mainly at dawn. Males of both species are scarce during the night but enter in large numbers at 6 a.m. to rest during the day. A. coustani and A. pharoensis are scarce in the evening and at dawn. A. coustani shows a well defined entry peak from 11 p.m. till midnight and A. pharoensis from midnight till 2 a.m. T. africanus and T. uniformis act rather similarly. T. uniformis shows a very distinct entry peak at 9 p.m. and T. africanus from 9 to 11 p.m. There is close correlation in this case between unfed and total females. It is thought that these species leave the hut soon after biting and that their biting activity is at a maximum between 9 and 11 p.m. Thus the entry curves of the important species show a succession of entry peaks through the night—T. uniformis, 9 p.m. ; T. africanus, 9–11 p.m. ; A. coustani, 11–12 p.m. ; A. pharoensis, 12 p.m.–2 a.m. ; A. gambiae, 11 p.m.–6 a.m. ; A. funestus, 3–6 a.m.

9. Night catches, comparing dark and dimly lighted tents, showed that A. coustani entered tents in large numbers and preferred the lighted tent, as did T. africanus and T. uniformis. C. nebulosus preferred the dark tent. Catches made in the open showed that A. gambiae and A. funestus prefer to bite in huts, T. africanus and T. uniformis in the open.

10. Comparison of night and day catches showed that the mosquitos taken may be divided into 4 groups :—

1. True house-haunting species, A. gambiae and A. funestus. Females are abundant both by night and by day, males by day only. These species enter both for food and for shelter. Day catches, which included both males and females, give the best estimate of prevalence.

2. Species which enter mainly to feed, T. africanus and T. uniformis ; perhaps A. coustani and A. pharoensis. Females are common by night but are never numerous by day. Males are always scarce. Night catches are essential for an understanding of this group.

3. Species which enter human habitations mainly for shelter, C. antennatus. Females are prevalent by day only.

4. Species which enter casually and are scarce both by night and by day.

11. Analysis of day catches showed that the great majority of A. gambiae and A. funestus females had Grade 1 wings. Sometimes the wings were still undamaged when the ovary was maturing for the second time. Ovary dissections of these species showed that the largest numbers belonged to Group I and that the percentage in this group became higher at times of increase. Most females of these species and of T. africanus and T. uniformis contained blood. Of the unfed A. gambiae and A. funestus, the great majority had Group I ovaries, i.e., they were young females which had never yet fed.

12. Analysis of an A. gambiae increase (December 1940–January 1941) by ovary dissection of day catches showed that the whole increase was dependent on a constant supply of young females with Group I ovaries. As soon as this supply diminished the increase came to an end. It seems, therefore, that the life of the female was short at that season. The numbers of males and females taken were closely correlated throughout.

13. In day catches the great majority of Anophelines were taken on the ceiling. Taeniorhynchus spp. were commonest on the walls. Very few mosquitos were found on the floor. With regard to mosquitos taken on the walls, it was found that all species preferred the lower and darker half. Catches made on the outside of the walls consisted mainly of male Anophelines.

14. In comparative series of catches made to determine the best hour for day catching, no significant difference was found between catches made at all hours from 6 to 11 a.m.

15. Preliminary tests showed that there was probably a quantitative relationship between the numbers of human inhabitants of a hut and the numbers of mosquitos taken. This was confirmed by night and day catches made simultaneously in huts with 1, 5, 10 and 15 inhabitants respectively. It was found that there was a very close direct relationship between the size of the human population and the numbers of females of biting species taken. Non-biting species did not discriminate between the huts.

16. Comparison was made between huts containing 5 washed and 5 unwashed natives respectively. All the important biting species preferred the hut with the unwashed natives.

17. In night catches, A. gambiae and A. funestus females preferred a hut containing dirty clothing only to a completely empty hut. Females of T. africanus and T. uniformis showed no such preference.

18. Catches in empty huts showed a relative but not an absolute increase in Anopheline males.

19. It was found that a hut subdivided by a hessian curtain could be used for preference experiments with varying human population.

20. In a comparison between a hut containing a native and one containing a calf, it was found that A. gambiae and A. funestus were more numerous in the hut with the native both by day and by night. A. funestus showed a more marked preference for the native than did A. gambiae. A. coustani, A. pharoensis and C. antennatus showed a distinct preference for the calf. In the hut with the native, Anophelines formed 94 per cent. of the total catch, but in the calf hut Culicines formed 95 per cent. of the total.

21. It is shown that at Kisumu the seasonal incidence of A. gambiae is dependent on local rainfall. The relationship is qualitative rather than quantitative. A threshold figure of 5 inches of rain per month is necessary before an increase can take place. When an increase does occur, the population in the first month of the increase is proportional not to the amount of rain which has fallen but to the lower initial population of the preceding month. If the increase is maintained for several months, the growth of the population takes place in geometrical ratio.

22. At Kisumu the seasonal incidence of A. funestus is not connected with local rainfall. Increases take place when the level of Victoria Nyanza rises. The rise in lake level is dependent on the rainfall of a large part of East Africa and is independent of local rainfall.

23. The seasonal incidence of other species is briefly discussed.

24. The parasites noted from mosquitos were mites, which were most prevalent on A. coustani and A. gambiae, and Coelomomyces africanus which was commonest in A. funestus. Coelomomyces is a fungous parasite which causes destruction of the ovaries. It is now recorded from Kenya for the first time. Unsuccessful attempts were made to infect larvae with this fungus, but naturally infected larvae were found.

25. Unsuccessful attempts were made to render adult mosquitos individually recognisable by staining the larvae with various dyes. Attempts to make the blood-meal recognisable by injecting identifiable substances into the blood-stream of the human bait were also failures.

Adults of Aphis fabae Scop. can weigh from as little as 200 μg to as much as 1 800 μg (Way & Banks, 1967), a remarkable range in size for a single species. An extensive range in size also occurs among the adults in other species of aphid (Murdie, 1969a, b; Dixon, 1970). Small individuals result when aphids develop either under crowded conditions or on a mature host-plant; large aphids result when the nymphs are reared in isolation or on young or senescent host-plants (Way & Banks, 1967; Murdie, 1969a, b; Dixon, 1970). A small adult produces fewer nymphs and also smaller nymphs than average (Murdie, 1969b; Dixon, 1970). When aphids are overcrowded or feed on host-plants of poor quality, many aphids reach maturity that might otherwise fail to mature because of the ability of the species to produce viable adults of a great variety of size, including very small adults (Way & Banks, 1967).

The biting behaviour of East African species of Aëdes in the subgenera Aëdimorphus, Banksinella and Dunnius, as shown in numerous series of 24-hr, catches made predominantly in Uganda, is discussed. It is shown that with the single exception of A. (A.) natronius Edw., which is arboreal, all the species encountered have been most prevalent at ground level. They bite mostly by day, but A. cumminsi (Theo.) shows a marked peak of activity from just before to just after sunset, and A. natronius is crepuscular. When, however, samples were obtained in environments less favoured than the forest floor, and in which the mosquito concerned was less abundant, the biting cycle might be altered. Thus various species which were essentially diurnal at ground level in forest might be nocturnal in the canopy or in banana plantations.

In some cases there seemed to be a tendency towards a group pattern of behaviour. For example, in the abnormalis (Theo.) and tarsalis (Newst.) groups of Edwards it was found that at least three species showed very similar biting cycles. A fourth species, A. nigricephalus (Theo.), which occurs in Nigeria, is reported there to differ in its biting habits, and is also strikingly different in appearance and in the structure of the terminalia.

Members of all three subgenera have been involved in various isolations of virus, but it is not possible to prove that they, rather than other species of Aëdes included in the infected lots, were the vector mosquitos, except in the case of the A. tarsalis group, from which there have been two definite isolations of Rift Valley fever virus, and in that of A. circumluteolus (Theo.), which has been shown by recent work in South and East Africa to be of major importance, well over 20 isolations of virus having been made from this species. So far as is known at present, seven separate viruses and one distinct variant have been isolated from A. circumluteolus, and other members of the subgenus Banksinella also appear to be involved in transmission.

The biology and pest status of Hylobius abietis Linnaeus in Europe are critically reviewed. New data are presented and the relationships between the weevil and its host plants considered. In Europe, H. abietis is the major pest of establishment forestry causing millions of ECUs of damage annually and perpetuating the addition of insecticide residues to sensitive habitats. Predator and parasitoid complexes in Britain and Europe are compared and contrasted. The lack of knowledge of the processes involved in adult dispersal and longevity are highlighted as major areas of concern. The biology and behaviour of the adult and larval stages are reviewed and new data presented. The feeding preferences of the adult weevils are considered and the possibility of using deterrents as a pest management strategy discussed. The development of risk assessment and forecasting tools aimed at more effective deployment of pest-management options are discussed. Risk criteria have their origins in important ecological relationships which require new understanding, but the prospects for determining high-risk forest sites are promising. The options for biological control are evaluated, in particular the use of mycopesticides and increased larval predation. It is concluded that much more research into the biology and ecology of H. abietis is required before a successful Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programme can be initiated.

The effect of temperature within the range 10–30°C on Metopolophium dirhodum (Wlk.), Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) and Macrosiphum avenae (F.) was measured in controlled environment cabinets. Development rates increased with temperature to a maximum at 20°C for Metopolophium dirhodum, 22·5°C for Macrosiphum avenae and 25°C for R. padi, decreasing thereafter to zero by 30°C when all the nymphs died. The fourth instar and pre-reproductive adult appeared to be affected at temperatures below those for the younger instars. Mortalities of immature M. avenae were similar between 10° and 25°C, but more immature Metopolophium dirhodum died at high, and R. padi at low, temperatures. Survival rates decreased with increase of temperature, and fecundity was largest at 20°C. Rates of increase became largest at 20°C for M. dirhodum and Macrosiphum avenae and at 25°C for R. padi. Above 15°C, R. padi had a 4–16 times larger capacity for increase than the other two species because it developed faster and achieved its rate of maximum fecundity sooner.

Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are the most damaging pests on fruit crops on Réunion Island, near Madagascar. Survival and development of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitiscapitata (Wiedemann), the Natal fruit fly, C. rosa Karsch and the Mascarenes fruit fly, C. catoirii Guérin-Mèneville were compared at five constant temperatures spanning 15 to 35°C. Durations of the immature stages of C. capitata, C. rosa and C catoirii ranged from 14.5–63.8, 18.8–65.7 and 16.8–65.8 days, respectively, at 30–15°C. The lower developmental threshold and thermal constant were calculated using the temperature summation model. The thermal constant for total development of the immature stages of C. capitata, C. rosa and C. catoirii were 260, 405 and 356 DD, respectively. Species differed mainly during the larval stages and ovarian maturation period, with smaller differences in the egg stage. Ceratitis rosa appeared to be better adapted to low temperatures than the two other species as it showed a lower larval developmental threshold of 3.1°C compared to 10.2°C for C. capitata and 8.9°C for C. catoirii. Overall, C. catoirii had a low survival rate within the range of temperatures studied. The different responses of the three Ceratitis species to various temperatures explain to some extent their distribution on the island. The results obtained will be used for optimizing laboratory rearing procedures and for constructing computer simulation models to predict fruit fly population dynamics.

The two most widespread biotypes of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) in southern Europe and the Middle East are referred to as the B and Q-type, which are morphologically indistinguishable. In this study various DNA markers have been developed, applied and compared for studying genetic diversity and distribution of the two biotypes. For developing sequence characterized amplified regions (SCAR) and cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences (CAPS) techniques, single random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) fragments of B and Q biotypes, respectively, were used. The CAPS were investigated on the basis of nuclear sodium channel and the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I genes (mtCOI) sequences. In general, complete agreement was found between the different markers used. Analysis of field samples collected in Israel for several years, using these markers, indicated that the percentage of the Q biotype tends to increase in field populations as time progresses. This may be attributed to the resistance of the Q biotype to neonicotinoids and pyriproxyfen and the susceptibility of the B biotype to these insecticides.

Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter) (Hem. Miridae) is a native zoophytophagous predator of the Mediterranean region, and its populations colonize tomato crops when they are not heavily treated with insecticides. This generalist predator has a high capacity for controlling insect pests, and it is currently commercially produced and released in some areas to control Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hem. Aleyrodidae). However, its status as a pest and/or as beneficial is controversial. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the risk of damage to tomatoes in extreme conditions of prey scarcity, as well as high predator populations. Three predator densities were tested in a greenhouse cage experiment during a summer tomato crop. The crop did not display any negative effect caused by the predators during the first six weeks of interaction, independently of the density released. However, subsequently, the effect was dramatic, both on the vegetative growth of the plant and on the production of fruits. The reduction in vegetative growth was located at truss eight and it was expressed mainly by a lower number of leaves and a shorter length of the shoot above the truss. There was a significant reduction of yield with a lower number of fruits collected and a smaller mean weight, although this was not observable until truss seven. It seems that feeding on the plant by this mirid bug competed with the vegetative growth and fruiting processes of the plant in the extreme conditions of prey shortage maintained in our experiment.

A knowledge of the often complex relationship between insect populations and their effects on the yield-forming processes of crops is useful for assessing pest status and for devising methods of minimising the effects of infestation on yield. After a preliminary section on definition of terms, consideration is given to ways in which insects injure plants and crops, particularly annual crops. Investigations into the yield-forming processes of unattacked crops can often provide useful insights into the likely effect of insect injuries on yield. The differences between the characteristics of individuals and populations are discussed, both of insects attacking plants, and plants responding to the attacks of insects. The distribution of insects on plants and on crops and the effect that this has on damage is considered, as is the time and duration of the attack in relation to the growth cycle of the crop. The components of plant resistance to insect attack are then discussed, especially tolerance and the various ways in which plants and crops compensate for injury. The review concludes with an examination of the quantitative relationships between numbers of insects or injuries and their effects on yield. The generalised response is a sigmoid curve relating an upper and lower plateau of yield where changes in the numbers of insects or injuries have little effect. Most relationships conform to some part of this curve, though few show all its features.

Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) larvae were collected from field crops and wild hosts in India, Nepal and Pakistan from 1991 to 1995, and ninety eight laboratory cultures established. Cypermethrin, fenvalerate, endosulfan, quinalphos, monocrotophos and methomyl insecticides were topically applied to 30–40 mg, first laboratory generation larvae and resistance determined from log dose probit bioassays. Significant levels of cypermethrin and fenvalerate resistance were found in all field strains, demonstrating that resistance to at least some pyrethroids is now ubiquitous in H. armigera populations in the Indian subcontinent; cypermethrin and fenvalerate resistance levels ranged from 5– to 6500–fold and 16– to 3200–fold respectively. Pyrethroid resistance levels were highest in the intensive cotton and pulse growing regions of central and southern India where excessive application of insecticide is common. In all field strains assayed, pre-treatment with the metabolic synergist piperonyl butoxide (pbo), resulted in significant suppression of pyrethroid resistance. However, in nearly all cases, full suppression of resistance was not achieved. This residual non-pbo-suppressible resistance was most likely due to a nerve-insensitivity resistance mechanism. Pbo-insensitive resistance was highest in regions of India where insecticides were frequently applied to cotton and legume crops. In some regions where insecticides were heavily overused, a second high order nerve-insensitivity mechanism (possibly a Super -Kdr type mechanism), may have been present. Incipient endosulfan resistance (1–28-fold), was present throughout India, Nepal and Pakistan. Low to moderate levels of resistance (2–59–fold), were reported to the phosphorothionate group organophosphate, quinalphos, in India and Pakistan, but there was no evidence of significant resistance (0.4–3–fold), to the phosphate group organophosphate, monocrotophos, under our bioassay conditions between 1993 and 1994. H. armigera strains collected in Nepal in 1993 and 1994 were susceptible to quinalphos, but by 1995, 4–5–fold resistance was detected. It is probable that much of the resistance to pyrethroid, organophosphate and carbamate insecticides in the Indian subcontinent can be attributed to an inherited or inducible mixed function oxidase complex. Non-pbo-suppressible resistance becomes significant in regions and periods in the season when insecticide selection pressure on resistant H. armigera larvae on cotton and legume crops is very high.

During an epizootic of bluetongue virus disease of sheep in Cyprus in the autumn of 1977, 16 species of Culicoides were collected in light-traps and 4 species were collected from breeding sites. Two of the species found breeding in close association with sheep and goats are potential vectors of bluetongue virus. The possibility of a third species being a vector in Cyprus is discussed.

A survey was conducted in 47 locations in nine cotton-growing states of India to identify the composition of mealybug species occurring on cotton. Results of the taxonomic study showed that two mealybug species, the solenopsis mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley), and the pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), were found to infest cotton plants from all nine cotton growing states of the country. However, P. solenopsis was found to be the predominant mealybug species, comprising 95% of the samples examined. P. solenopsis, which was hitherto not reported to occur in India, now appears to be widespread on cotton in almost all cotton-growing states of the country. P. solenopsis is an exotic species originated from the USA and was reported to damage cotton and crops of 14 families. This report discusses the implications of the introduction of this exotic polyphagous pest species and the necessary steps to mitigate its potential threat to agriculture in India.

The age compositions of samples of females of Glossina pallidipes Aust., G. palpalis fuscipes Newst. and G. brevipalpis Newst., are analysed by means of a method of age determination based upon the changes occurring in the reproductive system during successive gonotrophic cycles. This method of age determination is described in detail.

Females were sampled by three main methods: in traps, by catching on a bait-animal, and on a fly-round. Some flies were also found as resting flies in the undergrowth.

Trap-caught samples of G. pallidipes were older (i.e.), contained a larger proportion of old flies (and a smaller proportion of young flies) than the hand-caught samples. The bait-caught samples were intermediate in age structure. Correlated with the increasing mean age in the hand-caught—bait-caught—trap-caught series was an increase in the proportion of females carrying third-instar larvae and a decrease in the proportion of those carrying eggs. Results with samples of G. palpalis fuscipes and G. brevipalpis were not so well defined.

The results of dissecting teneral and non-teneral nullipars of G. pallidipes and G. palpalis fuscipes indicate that females of the latter are inseminated some time before they take their first blood-meal, but teneral females of G. pallidipes are inseminated when they come to the host to feed or after they have fed.

The relation of the ovarian method of age determination to Jackson's (1946) wing-fray categories in females of G. pallidipes, and the probable epidemiological importance of the samples, are also discussed.

Two correlative approaches to the challenge of ecological niche modeling (genetic algorithm, maximum entropy) were used to estimate the potential global distribution of the invasive fruit fly, Bactrocera invadens, based on associations between known occurrence records and a set of environmental predictor variables. The two models yielded similar estimates, largely corresponding to Equatorial climate classes with high levels of precipitation. The maximum entropy approach was somewhat more conservative in its evaluation of suitability, depending on thresholds for presence/absence that are selected, largely excluding areas with distinct dry seasons; the genetic algorithm models, in contrast, indicate that climate class as partly suitable. Predictive tests based on independent distributional data indicate that model predictions are quite robust. Field observations in Benin and Tanzania confirm relationships between seasonal occurrences of this species and humidity and temperature.

Suction traps sampling at a height of 12·2 m have been operated by the Rothamsted Insect Survey since 1964 to monitor the aerial movement of aphids and other insects. Many variants of the trap have evolved in other countries due to the lack of a detailed published description. A standard for a low maintenance structure of the ‘12-metre' suction trap now being adopted by the Rothamsted Insect Survey and some other users is described. This should lead to better uniformity and comparability of data from such traps.

In a variety of laboratory and field experiments, avermectins have been tested against some 84 species of insects in ten orders, most of which are pests of livestock or horticultural crops or are of general nuisance value. This work is reviewed, comparing doses used, methods of application, and responses of the insects. Avermectins (abamectin and ivermectin) are toxic to almost all insects examined, although tolerance varies and death can be uncommonly slow, taking 24 h to 30 days. There is a marked absence of information on physiological processes that are affected by the pesticides, although at the cellular level they are thought to disrupt receptors for y-aminobutyric acid and glutamic acid in the central nervous system and muscular system. At high doses, treated insects are progressively immobilized, and although initially many can move when stimulated, this ability becomes lost. Some show a disturbed water balance and become distended with fluid, while others show disruption of moulting and metamorphosis. Feeding inhibition is commonly observed at sub-lethal doses. Avermectins affect many aspects of reproduction including mating behaviour, egg development, oviposition and egg hatching. The possibility is raised that these diverse disturbances are not all due to disruption of neuromuscular or central nervous system synapses, and the need for work in this area is stressed. Field studies have shown ivermectin to be most valuable in eradicating insect pests of livestock, but the use of abamectin against horticultural pests has produced less impressive results. The limited work on non-target species is discussed, and attention is drawn to some possible environmental consequences of excreted ivermectin on dung-breeding insects.

Brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål), is a highly polyphagous invasive species attacking both cultivated and wild plants increasing its threat to ecosystems as a global pest. However, dispersal biology of this invasive species is not well understood. This study evaluated the flight capacity and behavior of H. halys under laboratory, semi-field, and field conditions. Flight mills were used to measure the baseline flight capacity of adults collected year round from the field and included both foraging and overwintering populations. The effects of abiotic conditions such as wind speed and temperatures on the free flight parameters of H. halys were evaluated under semi-field and field conditions. The mean flight distances over a 22-h period were 2442 and 2083 m for male and female, respectively. Most individuals (89%) flew <5 km, though some flew much further with a maximum flight distance observed of 117 km. Flight distances by H. halys increased after emergence from overwintering sites in spring and reached their highest point in June. The incidence of take off by H. halys was significantly affected by the wind speed; when provided with still air conditions, 83% of individuals took off, but the rates decreased to <10% when wind speed was increased to or above 0.75 m s−1. The incidence of take off by H. halys was significantly affected by ambient temperature and light intensity in the field, whereas relative humidity and insect sex did not. When the temperature was at 10–15°C, 3% of individuals took off, but the proportion of H. halys taking flight increased to 61, 84, and 87% at 15–20, 20–25, and 25–30°C, respectively. In the field, prevailing flight direction was biased toward the opposite direction of the sun's position, especially in the morning. The implications of H. halys flight biology are discussed in the context of developing monitoring and management programs for this invasive species.

Silicon (Si) is known to have a role in constitutive plant defence against arthropod pests, and recent work has illustrated involvement in induced plant defences. The present tri-trophic study tested the hypothesis that Si increases natural enemy attraction to pest-infested plants and improves biological control. Cucumber plants treated with potassium silicate (Si+) and untreated control plants (Si−) were maintained in separately vented glasshouse compartments. Y-tube olfactometer studies showed that adult Dicranolaius bellulus were significantly more attracted to Si+ plants upon which Helicoverpa armigera larvae had fed compared with Si−, pest-infested plants. Predators were not significantly more attracted to Si+ plants when comparing uninfested cucumbers. In a field experiment, we placed H. armigera-infested and uninfested Si+ and Si− cucumber plants in a lucerne stand. Removal rates of H. armigera egg baits showed predation was greater for Si+ infested plants than for other treatments. Results suggest that Si applied to plants with a subsequent pest infestation increases the plants' attractiveness to natural enemies; an effect that was reflected in elevated biological control in the field.