Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-17T09:58:53.309Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Canadian policy perspectives on promoting physical activity across age-friendly communities: lessons for advocacy and action

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 September 2017

CANDACE I. J. NYKIFORUK ,
DEBORAH RAWSON ,
JENNIFER ANN MCGETRICK Open the ORCID record for JENNIFER ANN MCGETRICK [Opens in a new window]  and
ANA PAULA BELON
CANDACE I. J. NYKIFORUK*
Affiliation:
School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
DEBORAH RAWSON
Affiliation:
School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
JENNIFER ANN MCGETRICK
Affiliation:
School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
ANA PAULA BELON
Affiliation:
School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
*
Address for correspondence: Candace I. J. Nykiforuk, School of Public Health, University of Alberta, 3-291 Edmonton Clinic Health Academy 11405-87 Avenue NW Edmonton, Alberta, CanadaT6G 1C9 E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Population ageing combined with physical inactivity has critical implications for the public health of communities in the twenty-first century. In the last decade, the World Health Organization launched the age-friendly cities agenda, aiming to address population ageing through whole-systems, rights-based, health equity-focused approaches. An important intervention for age-friendly communities is modifying built environments to support population-level physical activity. Physical activity can help mitigate impacts of chronic diseases and social isolation on older adults. Need for advocacy and action in this area raises questions of how to develop supportive environments for physical activity across age-friendly community types. In Canada, a substantial proportion of older adults live outside large urban municipalities, for which scant research exists on fostering age-friendly built environments. To this end, we conducted qualitative research involving semi-structured interviews with 21 municipal policy influencers in Alberta, Canada to gather perspectives on development and early implementation of an age-friendly policy framework in the small urban and rural context. Our findings are organised by three main themes providing key lessons for advocacy and action, namely pursuing comprehensive planning, promoting public engagement and prioritising the needs of older adults. This research informs advocacy and action priorities in promoting built environment modification for routine physical activity as part of an age-friendliness agenda for small urban and rural regions of Canada and other countries.

Keywords

age-friendly citiesbuilt environmentcity planningolder adultshealthy public policyphysical activitysocial participation
Type
Article
Information
Ageing & Society , Volume 39 , Issue 2 , February 2019 , pp. 307 - 339
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abel, T. and Frohlich, K. L. 2012. Capitals and capabilities: linking structure and agency to reduce health inequalities. Social Science and Medicine, 74, 2, 236–44.Google Scholar
Barnes, M. 2005. The same old process? Older people, participation and deliberation. Ageing & Society, 25, 2, 245–59.Google Scholar
Beaglehole, R., Bonita, R., Horton, R., Adams, C., Alleyne, G., Asaria, P., Baugh, V., Bekedam, H., Billo, N., Casswell, S., Cecchini, M., Colagiuri, R., Colagiuri, S., Collins, T., Ebrahim, S., Engelgau, M., Galea, G., Gaziano, T., Geneau, R., Haines, A., Hospedales, J., Jha, P., Keeling, A., Leeder, S., Lincoln, P., McKee, M., MacKay, J., Magnusson, R., Moodie, R., Mwatsama, M., Nishtar, S., Norrving, B., Patterson, D., Piot, P., Ralston, J., Rani, M., Reddy, K. S., Sassi, F., Sheron, N., Stuckler, D., Suh, I., Torode, J., Varghese, C. and Watt, J. 2011. Priority actions for the non-communicable disease crisis. The Lancet, 377, 9775, 1438–47.Google Scholar
Beierle, T. C. 2002. The quality of stakeholder-based decisions. Risk Analysis, 22, 4, 739–49.Google Scholar
Benach, J., Malmusi, D., Yasui, Y. and Martinez, J. M. 2013. A new typology of policies to tackle health inequalities and scenarios of impact based on Rose's population approach. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 67, 3, 286–91.Google Scholar
Borst, H. C., de Vries, S. I., Graham, J. M. A., van Dongen, J. E. F., Bakker, I. and Miedema, H. M. E. 2009. Influence of environmental street characteristics on walking route choice of elderly people. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29, 4, 477–84.Google Scholar
Borst, H. C., Miedema, H. M. E., de Vries, S. I., Graham, J. M. A. and van Dongen, J. E. F. 2008. Relationships between street characteristics and perceived attractiveness for walking reported by elderly people. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28, 4, 353–61.Google Scholar
Bowen, S. and Zwi, A. B. 2005. Pathways to ‘evidence-informed’ policy and practice: a framework for action. PLoS Medicine, 2, 7, 0600–0605.Google Scholar
Brinkmann, S. 2007. Could interviews be epistemic? An alternative to qualitative opinion polling. Qualitative Inquiry, 13, 8, 1116–38.Google Scholar
Buffel, T., Phillipson, C. and Scharf, T. 2012. Ageing in urban environments: developing ‘age-friendly’ cities. Critical Social Policy, 32, 4, 597–617.Google Scholar
Caelli, K., Ray, L. and Mill, J. 2003. ‘Clear as mud’: toward greater clarity in generic qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 2, 2, 1–24.Google Scholar
Carey, G. and Crammond, B. 2014. A glossary of policy frameworks: the many forms of ‘universalism’ and policy ‘targeting’. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 71, 3, 1–5.Google Scholar
Charmaz, K. 2004. Premises, principles, and practices in qualitative research: revisiting the foundations. Qualitative Health Research, 14, 7, 976–93.Google Scholar
Collins, P. A. and Hayes, M. V. 2013. Examining the capacities of municipal governments to reduce health inequities: a survey of municipal actors’ perceptions in metro Vancouver. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 104, 4, e304–10.Google Scholar
Corburn, J. 2004. Confronting the challenges in reconnecting urban planning and public health. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 4, 541–6.Google Scholar
Coyne, I. T. 1997. Sampling in qualitative research. Purposeful and theoretical sampling; merging or clear boundaries? Journal of Advanced Nursing, 26, 3, 623–30.Google Scholar
Day, R. 2008. Local environments and older people's health: dimensions from a comparative qualitative study in Scotland. Health and Place, 14, 2, 299–312.Google Scholar
Ding, D. and Gebel, K. 2012. Built environment, physical activity, and obesity: what have we learned from reviewing the literature? Health and Place, 18, 1, 100–5.Google Scholar
Dodson, E. A., Stamatakis, K. A., Chalifour, S., Haire-Joshu, D., McBride, T. and Brownson, R. C. 2013. State legislators’ work on public health-related issues: what influences priorities? Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 19, 1, 25–9.Google Scholar
Durand, C. P., Andalib, M., Dunton, G. F., Wolch, J. and Pentz, M. A. 2011. A systematic review of built environment factors related to physical activity and obesity risk: implications for Smart Growth urban planning. Obesity Reviews, 12, 501, e173–82.Google Scholar
Edwards, P. and Mawani, A. 2007. Healthy Aging in Canada: A New Vision, A Vital Investment from Evidence to Action. Health Aging and Wellness Working Group of the Federal, Provincial and Territorial Committee of Officials (Seniors), Ottawa. Available online at http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/seniors-aines/publications/public/healthy-sante/vision/vision-bref/index-eng.php [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
Federal/Provincial/Territorial (F/T/P) Ministers Responsible for Seniors 2006. Age-friendly Rural and Remote Communities: A Guide. Healthy Aging and Wellness Working Group of the Federal, Provincial and Territorial Committee of Officials (Seniors), Ottawa. Available online at http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/seniors-aines/publications/public/afc-caa/rural-rurales/index-eng.php [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
Filion, P., Lee, M., Leanage, N. and Hakull, K. 2015. Planners’ perspectives on obstacles to sustainable urban development: implications for transformative planning strategies. Planning Practice and Research, 30, 2, 202–21.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, K. G. and Caro, F. G. 2014. An overview of age-friendly cities and communities around the world. Journal of Aging and Social Policy, 26, 1/2, 1–18.Google Scholar
Frost, S. S., Goins, R. T., Hunter, R. H., Hooker, S. P., Bryant, L. L., Kruger, J. and Pluto, D. 2010. Effects of the built environment on physical activity of adults living in rural settings. American Journal of Health Promotion, 24, 4, 267–83.Google Scholar
Garvin, T., Nykiforuk, C. I. J. and Johnson, S. 2012. Can we get old here? Seniors’ perceptions of seasonal constraints of neighbourhood built environments in a northern, winter city. Geografiska Annaler, Series B: Human Geography, 94, 4, 369–89.Google Scholar
Goins, K. V., Schneider, K. L., Brownson, R., Carnoske, C., Evenson, K. R., Eyler, A., Heinrich, K. and Litt, J. 2013. Municipal officials’ perceived barriers to consideration of physical activity in community design decision making. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 19, e-supplement 3, S65–73.Google Scholar
Golant, S., M. 2014. Age-friendly Communities: Are We Expecting Too Much? Institute for Research on Public Policy, Montreal. Available online at http://irpp.org/research-studies/insight-no5/ [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
Gordon, D. L. A. and Janzen, M. 2013. Suburban nation? Estimating the size of Canada's suburban population. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 30, 3, 197–220.Google Scholar
Government of Alberta 2015. Population Projection: Alberta 2015–2041. Government of Alberta Treasury Board and Finance Office of Statistics and Information, Edmonton, Canada. Available online at http://finance.alberta.ca/aboutalberta/population-projections/2015-2041-alberta-population-projections.pdf [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
Grafova, I. B., Freedman, V. A. , Kumar, R. and Rogowski, J. 2008. Neighborhoods and obesity in later life. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 11, 2065–71.Google Scholar
Grant, J. L., Mackay, K. C., Manuel, P. M. and McHugh, T.-L. F. 2010. Barriers to optimizing investments in the built environment to reduce youth obesity: policy-maker perspectives. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 101, 3, 237–40.Google Scholar
Grant, J. L. and Scott, D. E. 2012. Complete communities versus the Canadian dream: representations of suburban aspirations. Canadian Planning and Policy, 21, 1, 132–75.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A., Zimmerman, J. L. and Rimmer, J. H. 2012. Built environment instruments for walkability, bikeability, and recreation: disability and universal design relevant? Disability and Health Journal, 5, 2, 87–101.Google Scholar
Hallal, P. C., Andersen, L. B., Bull, F. C., Guthold, R., Haskell, W. and Ekelund, U. 2012. Global physical activity levels: surveillance progress, pitfalls, and prospects. The Lancet, 380, 9838, 247–57.Google Scholar
Hallberg, L. R. M. 2006. The ‘core category’ of grounded theory: making constant comparisons. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 1, 3, 141–8.Google Scholar
Heath, J. M. and Stuart, M. R. 2002. Prescribing exercise for frail elders. Journal of the American Board of Family Practice, 15, 3, 218–28.Google Scholar
Hodge, G. 2008. The Geography of Aging: Preparing Communities for the Surge in Seniors. McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal.Google Scholar
Hogwood, B. W. and Gunn, L. A. 1984. Policy Analysis for the Real World. Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Jackson, S. F. and Riley, B. L. 2007. Health promotion in Canada: 1986 to 2006. Promotion & Education, 14, 4, 214–8.Google Scholar
Keyes, L., Phillips, D. R., Sterling, E., Manegdeg, T., Kelly, M., Trimble, G. and Mayerik, C. 2014. Transforming the way we live together: a model to move communities from policy to implementation. Journal of Aging and Social Policy, 26, 1/2, 117–30.Google Scholar
King, A. C. and King, D. K. 2010. Physical activity for an aging population. Public Health Reviews, 32, 2, 401–26.Google Scholar
Koohsari, M. J., Badland, H. and Giles-Corti, B. 2013. (Re)designing the built environment to support physical activity: bringing public health back into urban design and planning. Cities, 35, 294–8.Google Scholar
Kosteniuk, J. G. and Dickinson, H. D. 2003. Tracing the social gradient in the health of Canadians: primary and secondary determinants. Social Science and Medicine, 57, 2, 263–76.Google Scholar
Kuper, A., Lingard, L. and Levinson, W. 2008. Critically appraising qualitative research. British Medical Journal, 337, 2, 7671, 687–9.Google Scholar
Lemmens, M. 2009. Re-zoning Alberta: smart regulations for Smart Growth. McGill International Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy, 5, 1, 117–37.Google Scholar
Leyden, K. M. 2003. Social capital and the built environment: the importance of walkable neighborhoods. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 9, 1546–51.Google Scholar
Li, F., Fisher, K. J., Bauman, A., Ory, M. G., Chodzko-Zajko, W. and Harmer, P. 2005. Neighborhood influencers on physical activity in middle-aged and older adults: a multilevel perspective. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 13, 1, 87–114.Google Scholar
Li, F., Harmer, P., Cardinal, B. J., Bosworth, M., Acock, A., Johnson-Shelton, D. and Moore, J. M. 2008. Built environment, adiposity, and physical activity in adults aged 50–75. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35, 1, 38–46.Google Scholar
Lowry, K. A., Vallejo, A. N. and Studenski, S. A. 2012. Successful aging as a continuum of functional independence: lessons from physical disability models of aging. Aging and Disease, 3, 1, 5–15.Google Scholar
Lui, C. W., Everingham, J. A., Warburton, J., Cuthill, M. and Bartlett, H. 2009. What makes a community age-friendly: a review of international literature. Australasian Journal on Ageing, 28, 3, 116–21.Google Scholar
Malterud, K. 2001. Qualitative research: standards, challenges, and guidelines. The Lancet, 358, 9280, 483–8.Google Scholar
Mays, N. and Pope, C. 1995. Rigour and qualitative research. British Medical Journal, 311, 6997, 109–12.Google Scholar
Mazmanian, D. A. and Sabatier, P. A. (eds) 1981. Effective Policy Implementation. Lexington Books, Lexington, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
McCormack, G. R. and Shiell, A. 2011. In search of causality: a systematic review of the relationship between the built environment and physical activity among adults. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 8, 125, 1–11.Google Scholar
Menec, V., Means, R., Keating, N., Parkhurst, G. and Eales, J. 2011. Conceptualizing age-friendly communities. Canadian Journal on Aging, 30, 3, 479–93.Google Scholar
Menichetti, J., Cipresso, P., Bussolin, D. and Graffigna, G. 2016. Engaging older people in healthy and active lifestyles: a systematic review. Ageing & Society, 36, 10, 2036–60.Google Scholar
Michael, Y. L., Green, M. K. and Farquhar, S. 2006. Neighborhood design and active aging. Health and Place, 12, 4, 734–40.Google Scholar
Milio, N. 1987. Making healthy public policy; developing the science by learning the art: an ecological framework for policy studies. Health Promotion, 2, 3, 263–74.Google Scholar
Moore, E. G. and Pacey, M. A. 2004. Geographic dimensions of aging in Canada, 1991–2001. Canadian Journal on Aging, 23, supplement 1, S5–21.Google Scholar
National Advisory Council on Aging 2005. Seniors on the Margins: Aging in Poverty in Canada. Available online at http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/H88-5-3-2005E.pdf [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
National Seniors Council 2014 a. Report on the Social Isolation of Seniors 2013–2014. Available online at http://www.seniorscouncil.gc.ca/eng/research_publications/social_isolation/page00.shtml [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
National Seniors Council 2014 b. Scoping Review of the Literature: Social Isolation of Seniors 2013–2014. Available online at http://www.seniorscouncil.gc.ca/eng/research_publications/scoping_social_isolation/page09.shtml [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
Nykiforuk, C. I. J. 2014. Policy Readiness Tool: List of Resources. PLACE Research Lab, Edmonton, Canada. Available online at http://policyreadinesstool.com/all-resources/ [Accessed 29 January 2017].Google Scholar
Nykiforuk, C. I. J., Wild, T. C. and Raine, K. 2014. Cancer beliefs and prevention policies: comparing Canadian decision-maker and general population views. Cancer Causes and Control, 25, 12, 1683–96.Google Scholar
O'Connell, L. 2009. The impact of local supporters on Smart Growth policy adoption. Journal of the American Planning Association, 75, 3, 281–91.Google Scholar
Oka, M. 2011. Toward designing an environment to promote physical activity. Landscape Journal, 30, 2, 280–98.Google Scholar
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. and Leech, N. L. 2007. Validity and qualitative research: an oxymoron? Quality and Quantity, 41, 2, 233–49.Google Scholar
Patterson, Z., Saddier, S., Rezaei, A. and Manaugh, K. 2014. Use of the Urban Core Index to analyze residential mobility: the case of seniors in Canadian metropolitan regions. Journal of Transport Geography, 41, 116–25.Google Scholar
Penney, T. L., Rainham, D. G. C., Dummer, T. J. B. and Kirk, S. F. L. 2014. A spatial analysis of community level overweight and obesity. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 24, supplement 2, 65–74.Google Scholar
Phillipson, C. 2015. Developing age-friendly urban communities: critical issues for public policy. Public Policy & Aging Report, 25, 1, 4–8.Google Scholar
Plouffe, L. A. and Kalache, A. 2011. Making communities age friendly: state and municipal initiatives in Canada and other countries. Gaceta Sanitaria, 25, supplement 2, 131–7.Google Scholar
Polkinghorne, D. E. 2006. An agenda for the second generation of qualitative studies. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 1, 2, 68–77.Google Scholar
Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) 2012. Age-friendly Communities in Canada: Community Implementation Guide. Available online at http://www.healthycanadians.gc.ca/publications/healthy-living-vie-saine/age-friendly-communities-toolbox-2012-collectivites-amies-aines-boite-outils/index-eng.php [Accessed 5 January 2017].Google Scholar
QSR Software 2014. NVivo (Version 10 for Windows). Available online at http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo.aspx [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
Raine, K., Muhajarine, N., Spence, J. C., Neary, N. E. and Nykiforuk, C. I. J. 2012. Coming to consensus on policy to create supportive built environments and community design. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 103, supplement 3, S5–8.Google Scholar
Rao, M., Prasad, S., Adshead, F. and Tissera, H. 2007. The built environment and health. The Lancet, 370, 9593, 1111–3.Google Scholar
Reeve, B., Ashe, M., Farias, R. and Gostin, L. 2015. State and municipal innovations in obesity policy: why localities remain a necessary laboratory for innovation. American Journal of Public Health, 105, 3, 442–50.Google Scholar
Resnik, D. B. 2010. Urban sprawl, Smart Growth, and deliberative democracy. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 10, 1852–6.Google Scholar
Richard, L., Gauvin, L., Kestens, Y., Shatenstein, B., Payette, H., Daniel, M., Moore, S., Laveasseur, M. and Mercille, G. 2013. Neighborhood resources and social participation among older adults: results from the VoisiNuage study. Journal of Aging and Health, 25, 2, 296–318.Google Scholar
Rodríguez, D. A., Khattak, A. J. and Evenson, K. R. 2006. Can New Urbanism encourage physical activity? Comparing a New Urbanist neighborhood with conventional suburbs. Journal of the American Planning Association, 72, 1, 43–54.Google Scholar
Rose, G. 2009. The population strategy of prevention. In Rose, G., Khaw, K. T. and Marmot, M. (eds), Rose's Strategy of Preventive Medicine. Oxford Scholarship Online, Oxford, 129–40.Google Scholar
Rydin, Y., Bleahu, A., Davies, M., Dávila, J. D., Friel, S., De Grandis, G., Groce, N., Hallal, P. C., Hamilton, I., Howden-Chapman, P., Lai, K. M., Lim, C. J., Martins, J., Osrin, D., Ridley, I., Scott, I., Taylor, M., Wilkinson, P., Wilson, J. 2012. Shaping cities for health: complexity and the planning of urban environments in the 21st century. The Lancet, 379, 9831, 2079–108.Google Scholar
Saelens, B. E. and Handy, S. L. 2008. Built environment correlates of walking: a review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40, supplement 7, S550–66.Google Scholar
Sancton, A. and Young, R. 2009. Foundations of Governance: Municipal Government in Canada's Provinces. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, Toronto.Google Scholar
Shareck, M., Frohlich, K. and Poland, B. 2013. Reducing social inequities in health through settings-related interventions – a conceptual framework. Global Health Promotion, 20, 2, 39–52.Google Scholar
Starks, H. and Brown Trinidad, S. 2007. Choose your method: a comparison of phenomenology, discourse analysis, and grounded theory. Qualitative Health Research, 17, 10, 1372–80.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada 2011. 2011 Census Profile. Available online at https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
Statistics Canada 2012. Annual Demographic Estimates: Canada, Provinces and Territories 2012: Population by Age and Sex. Available online at http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/91-215-x/2012000/part-partie2-eng.htm [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
Strath, S., Isaacs, R. and Greenwald, M. 2007. Operationalizing environmental indicators for physical activity in older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 15, 4, 412–24.Google Scholar
Sugiyama, T. and Thompson, C. W. 2007. Outdoor environments, activity and the well-being of older people: conceptualising environmental support. Environment and Planning A, 39, 8, 1943–60.Google Scholar
Sun, Y. 2014. Rethinking public health: promoting public engagement through a new discursive environment. American Journal of Public Health, 104, 1, e6–13.Google Scholar
Szabo, V. and Strang, V. R. 1997. Secondary analysis of qualitative data. Advances in Nursing Science, 20, 2, 66–74.Google Scholar
Tan, Y. and Weaver, D. H. 2009. Local media, public opinion, and state legislative policies: agenda setting at the state level. International Journal of Press/Politics, 14, 4, 454–76.Google Scholar
Tremblay, M. S., Warburton, D. E. R., Janssen, I., Paterson, D. H., Latimer, A. E., Rhodes, R. E., Kho, M. E., Hicks, A., LeBlanc, A. G., Zehr, L., Murumets, K. and Duggan, M. 2011. New Canadian physical activity guidelines. Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, 36, 1, 36–46.Google Scholar
Tung, G. J., Vernick, J. S., Reiney, E. V. and Gielsen, A. C. 2012. Legislator voting and behavioral science theory: a systematic review. American Journal of Health Behavior, 36, 6, 823–33.Google Scholar
United Nations 2002. Political Declaration and Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing. Available online at http://www.un.org/en/events/pastevents/pdfs/Madrid_plan.pdf [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
United Nations 2013. World Population Ageing Report 2013. Available online at http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/ageing/WorldPopulationAgeingReport2013.shtml [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division 2014. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Country Profile: Canada. Available online at http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Country-Profiles/ [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
Van Cauwenberg, J., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., De Meester, F., Van Dyck, D., Salmon, J., Clarys, P. and Deforche, B. 2011. Relationship between the physical environment and physical activity in older adults: a systematic review. Health and Place, 17, 2, 458–69.Google Scholar
Vojnovic, I. 1999. The environmental costs of modernism: an assessment of Canadian cities. Cities, 16, 5, 301–13.Google Scholar
Vrkljan, B. H. and Polgar, J. M. 2007. Linking occupational participation and occupational identity: an exploratory study of the transition from driving to driving cessation in older adulthood. Journal of Occupational Science, 14, 1, 30–9.Google Scholar
Wasfi, R. A., Ross, N. A. and El-Geniedy, A. M. 2013. Achieving recommended daily physical activity levels through commuting by public transportation: unpacking individual and contextual influences. Health and Place, 23, 18–25.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) 2002. Active Ageing: A Policy Framework. WHO Noncommunicable Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Department: Ageing and Life Course, Geneva. Available online at http://www.who.int/ageing/publications/active_ageing/en/ [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) 2007. Global Age-friendly Cities: A Guide. Available online at http://www.who.int/ageing/publications/Global_age_friendly_cities_Guide_English.pdf [Accessed 25 May 2016].Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) 2009. Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks. Available online at http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf [Accessed 25 May 2016]Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) 2010 a. Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health. Available online at http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44399/1/9789241599979_eng.pdf [Accessed 25 September 2016].Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) 2010 b. Global Network of Age-friendly Cities and Communities. Available online at http://www.who.int/ageing/projects/age_friendly_cities_network/en/ [Accessed 17 January 2017].Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) 2017 a. WHO Global Network of Age-friendly Cities and Communities. Available online at http://www.who.int/ageing/projects/age_friendly_cities_network/en/ [Accessed 5 January 2017].Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) 2017 b. Application Form to Join the WHO Global Network for Age-friendly Cities and Communities. Available online at http://www.who.int/ageing/application_form/en/ [Accessed 5 January 2017].Google Scholar
World Health Organization ( WHO) 2017 c. Global Database of Age-friendly Practices. Available online at https://extranet.who.int/datacol/custom_view_report.asp?survey_id=3536&view_id=6301&display_filter=1 [Accessed 5 January 2017].Google Scholar