Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T00:18:58.184Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Children's Eyewitness Testimony and Event Memory

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 June 2022

Martha E. Arterberry
Affiliation:
Colby College, Maine

Summary

This Element addresses the factors that influence children's accuracy in reporting on events and draws implications for children's ability to serve as reliable eyewitnesses. The following topics are covered: short- and long-term memory for event details; memory for stressful events; memory for the temporal order of events; memory for the spatial location of events; the ways poorly worded questions or intervening events interfere with memory; and individual differences in language development, understanding right from wrong and emotions, and cognitive processes. In addition, this Element considers how potential jurors perceive children as eyewitnesses and how the findings of the research on children's event memory inform best practices for interviewing children.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781009128216
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 23 June 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Wittig, B. A. (1969). Attachment and exploratory behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. In Foss, B. M. (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 111136). Routledge Methuen.Google Scholar
Alexander, K. W., O’Hara, K. D., Bortfeld, H. V. et al. (2010). Memory for emotional experiences in the context of attachment and social interaction style. Cognitive Development, 25, 325338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2010.08.002Google Scholar
Alexander, K. W., Quas, J. A., & Goodman, G. S. (2002). Theoretical advances in understanding children’s memory for distressing events: The role of attachment. Developmental Review, 22, 490519. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-2297(02)00004-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anastasi, J. S., & Rhodes, M. G. (2008). Examining differences in levels of false memories in children and adults using child-normed lists. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 889894. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.889Google Scholar
Antrobus, E., McKimmie, B. M., & Newcombe, P. A. (2012). Community members’ beliefs about children in Australian courts. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 19, 497516. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2011.615721Google Scholar
Antrobus, E., McKimmie, B. M., & Newcombe, P. A. (2016). Mode of children’s testimony and the effect of assumptions about credibility. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 23, 922940. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2016.1152927Google Scholar
Anwar, S., Bayer, P., & Hjalmarsson, R. (2014). The role of age in jury selection and trial outcomes. The Journal of Law and Economics, 57, 10011030. https://doi.org/10.1086/675257CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arterberry, M. E., & Albright, E. J. (2020). Children’s memory for temporal information: The roles of temporal language and executive function. Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 181, 191205. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2020.1741503CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arterberry, M. E., Perry, E. T., Price, C. M., & Steimel, S. (2020). Emotional understanding predicts facial recognition in 3- to 5-year-old children. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 17, 293306. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2019.1589445CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A control system and its control processes. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2, 89195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bainter, S. A., Tibbe, T. D., Goodman, Z. T., & Poole, D. A. (2020). Child eyewitness researchers often bin age: Prevalence of the practice and recommendations for analyzing developmental trends. Law and Human Behavior, 44, 327335. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000416CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker-Ward, L., Gordon, B. N., Ornstein, P. A., Larus, D. M., & Clubb, P. A. (1993). Young children’s long-term retention of a pediatric examination. Child Development, 64, 15191533. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131550Google Scholar
Baker-Ward, L., Quinonez, R., Milano, M. et al. (2015). Predicting children’s recall of a dental procedure: Contributions of stress, preparation, and dental history. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29, 775781. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3152CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltazar, N. C., Shutts, K., & Kinzler, K. D. (2012). Children show heightened memory for threatening social actions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 112, 102110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2011.11.003Google Scholar
Barlow, C. M., Jolley, R. P., & Hallam, J. L. (2011). Drawings as memory aids: Optimizing the drawing method to facilitate young children’s recall. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 480487. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1716Google Scholar
Bauer, P. J., Doydum, A. O., Pathman, T. et al. (2012). It’s all about location, location, location: Children’s memory for the “where” of personally experienced events. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113, 510522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.06.007Google Scholar
Bauer, P. J., Stewart, R., White, E. A., & Larkina, M. (2016). A place for every event and every event in its place: Memory for locations and activities by 4-year-old children. Journal of Cognition and Development, 17, 244263. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2014.959521Google Scholar
Benear, S. L., Ngo, C. T., Olson, I. R., & Newcombe, N. S. (2021). Understanding relational binding in early childhood: Interacting effects of overlap and delay. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 208, 150152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105152Google Scholar
Białecka-Pikul, M., Szpak, M., Zubek, J., Bosacki, S., & Kołodziejczyk, A. (2020). The psychological self and advanced theory of mind in adolescence. Self and Identity, 19, 85104. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2018.1538900Google Scholar
Bornstein, B. H. (1999). The ecological validity of jury simulations: Is the jury still out? Law and Human Behavior, 23, 7592. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022326807441Google Scholar
Bornstein, B. H., Kaplan, D. L., & Perry, A. R. (2007). Child abuse in the eyes of the beholder: Lay perceptions of child sexual and physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 375391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.09.007Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Arterberry, M. E. (2003). Recognition, categorization, and apperception of the facial expression of smiling by 5-month-old infants. Developmental Science, 6, 585599. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7687.00314Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Putnick, D. L. (2019). The architecture of the child mind: G, Fs, and the hierarchical model of intelligence. Taylor & Francis.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bottoms, B. L., Peter-Hagene, L. C., Stevenson, M. C. et al. (2014). Explaining gender differences in jurors’ reactions to child sexual assault cases. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 32(6), 789812. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2147Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child’s tie to his mother. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 39, 350373.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Attachment (2nd ed., Vol. 1). Basic Books.Google Scholar
Brackmann, N., Sauerland, M., & Otgaar, H. (2019). Developmental trends in lineup performance: Adolescents are more prone to innocent bystander misidentifications than children and adults. Memory & Cognition, 47(3), 428440. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-018-0877-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brainerd, C. J., Aydin, C., & Reyna, V. F. (2012). Development of dual-retrieval processes in recall: Learning, forgetting, and reminiscence. Journal of Memory and Language, 66, 763788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2011.12.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brainerd, C. J., Holliday, R. E., Reyna, V. F., Yang, Y., & Toglia, M. P. (2010). Developmental reversals in false memory: Effects of emotional valence and arousal. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107, 137154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.04.013Google Scholar
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (1995). Learning rate, learning opportunities, and the development of forgetting. Developmental Psychology, 31, 251262. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.2.251Google Scholar
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., & Forrest, T. J. (2002). Are young children susceptible to the false-memory illusion? Child Development, 73(5), 13631377. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00477Google Scholar
Brigham, J. C. (1998). Adults’ evaluations of characteristics of children’s memory. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19, 1539. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-3973(99)80026-4Google Scholar
Brown, D. A., Lamb, M. E., Lewis, C. et al. (2013). The NICHD Investigative Interview Protocol: An analogue study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 19, 367382. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035143Google Scholar
Brubacher, S. P., Glisic, U., Roberts, K. P., & Powell, M. (2011). Children’s ability to recall unique aspects of one occurrence of a repeated event. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 351358. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1696Google Scholar
Bruck, M., Melnyk, L., & Ceci, S. J. (2000). Draw it again Sam: The effect of drawing on children’s suggestibility and source monitoring ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77, 169196. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.1999.2560Google Scholar
Bruer, K., & Pozzulo, J. D. (2014). Influence of eyewitness age and recall error on mock juror decision-making. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 19, 332348. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burrell, L. V., Johnson, M. S., & Melinder, A. (2016). Children as earwitnesses: Memory for emotional auditory events. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(3), 323331. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Busby Grant, J. B., & Suddendorf, T. (2009). Preschoolers begin to differentiate the times of events from throughout the lifespan. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 6, 746762. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405620802102947CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, S., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (1995). The effect of drawing on memory performance in young children. Developmental Psychology, 31, 597608. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.4.597Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1993). Suggestibility of the child witness: A historical review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 403439. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.113.3.403CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chae, Y., & Ceci, S. J. (2005). Individual differences in children’s recall and suggestibility: The effect of intelligence, temperament and self-perceptions. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19(4), 383407. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1094CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chae, Y., Goodman, G. S., Larson, R. P. et al. (2014). Children’s memory and suggestibility about a distressing event: The role of children’s and parent’s attachment. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 123, 90111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2014.01.0050022-0965/2014Google Scholar
Cordon, I. M., Silberkleit, G., & Goodman, G. S. (2016). Getting to know you: Familiarity, stereotypes, and children’s eyewitness testimony. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 34, 7494. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2233Google Scholar
Crossman, A. M., & Lewis, M. (2006). Adults’ ability to detect children’s lying. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 24(5), 703715. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.731Google Scholar
Cycowicz, Y. M., Friedman, D., Snodgrass, J. G., & Duff, M. (2001). Recognition and source memory for pictures in children and adults. Neuropsychologia, 39, 255267. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(00)00108-1Google Scholar
Deese, J. (1959). Influence of inter-item associative strength upon immediate free recall. Psychological Reports, 5(3), 305312. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1959.5.3.305Google Scholar
Deker, L., & Pathman, T. (2021). Did I visit the polar bear before the giraffe? Examining memory for temporal order and the temporal distance effect in early to middle childhood. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 35, 785794. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3804Google Scholar
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1981). Peabody picture vocabulary test – revised. American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Faller, K. C. (2005). Anatomical dolls: Their use in assessment of children who may have been sexually abused. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 14, 121. https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v14n03_01CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., Turner, H., & Hamby, S. L. (2005). The victimization of children and youth: A comprehensive, national survey. Child Maltreatment, 10, 525. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559504271287CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzley, V. H., Okanda, M., Itakura, S., & Lee, K. (2011). Children’s responses to yes-no questions. In Siegel, M. & Surian, L. (Eds.), Access to language and cognitive development (pp. 8399). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fivush, R. (in press). Autobiographical memory and narrative in childhood. In Bornstein, M. H., Cambridge elements in child development. Cambridge University PressGoogle Scholar
Fivush, R., Hudson, J., & Nelson, K. (1984). Children’s long-term memory for a novel event: An exploratory study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 30, 303316. www.jstor.org/stable/23086104Google Scholar
Fonn, E. J., Zahl, J. H., & Tomsen, L. (2022). The boss is not always right: Norwegian preschoolers do not selectively endorse the testimony of a novel dominant agent. Child Development, 114. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13722Google Scholar
Frawley-O’Dea, M. G., & Goldner, V. (2007). Predatory priests, silenced victims: The sexual abuse crisis and the Catholic church. Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Friedman, W. J. (1992). Children’s time memory: The development of a differentiated past. Cognitive Development, 7(2), 171187. https://doi.org/10.1016/0885-2014(92)90010-OGoogle Scholar
Friedman, W. J. (1993). Memory for the time of past events. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 4466. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.113.1.44Google Scholar
Friedman, W. J. (2014). Development of memory for the times of past events. In Bauer, P. J. & Fivush, R. (Eds.), The Wiley handbook on the development of children’s memory (pp. 394407). Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Friedman, W. J., Gardner, A. G., & Zubin, N. R. E. (1995). Children’s comparisons of the recency of two events from the past year. Child Development, 66, 970983. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131792Google Scholar
Friedman, W. J., & Lyon, T. D. (2005). Development of temporal-reconstructive abilities. Child Development, 76, 12021216. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00844.x-i1Google Scholar
Gao, X., & Maurer, D. (2010). A happy story: Developmental changes in children’s sensitivity to facial expressions of varying intensities. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107, 6786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.05.003Google Scholar
Gardner, E., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (2020). The effect of drawing and socioeconomic status on children’s reports of a past experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 26, 397410. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000264Google Scholar
Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 3160. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31Google Scholar
Gervais, J., Tremblay, R. E., Desmarais-Gervais, L., & Vitaro, F. (2000). Children’s persistent lying, gender differences, and disruptive behaviours: A longitudinal perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 213221. www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pp/01650254.htmlGoogle Scholar
Goodman, G. S., Golding, J. M., Helgeson, V. S., Haith, M. M., & Michelli, J. (1987). When a child takes the stand: Jurors’ perceptions of children’s eyewitness testimony. Law and Human Behavior, 11, 2740. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01044837CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, G. S., Quas, J. A., Goldbarb, D., Gonzalves, L., & Gonzalez, A. (2019). Trauma and long-term memory for childhood events: Impact matters. Child Development Perspectives, 13, 39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12307Google Scholar
Gosse, L. L., & Roberts, K. P. (2014). Children’s use of a “time line” to indicate when events occurred. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 29(1), 3643. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-013-9118-xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (1999). Drawing facilitates children’s verbal reports after long delays. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5, 265283. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.5.3.265Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. Doom, R., J. R., & Esposito, E. A. (2015). Psychoneuroendocrinology of stress: Normative development and individual differences. In Lamb, M. E. & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Socioemotional processes (7th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 106151). Wiley.Google Scholar
Harris, P. L., & Gross, D. (1988). Children’s understanding of real and apparent emotion. In Astington, J. W., Harris, P. L. & Olson, D. R. (Eds.), Developing theories of mind (pp. 295314). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hayes, D. S., & Casey, D. M. (1992). Young children and television: The retention of emotional reactions. Child Development, 63, 14231436. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131566CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayne, H., & Imuta, K. (2011). Episodic memory in 3- and 4-year-old children. Developmental Psychobiology, 53, 317322. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20527CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hedrick, A. M., Haden, C. A., & Ornstein, P. A. (2009). Elaborative talk during and after an event: Conversational style influences children’s memory reports. Journal of Cognition and Development, 10, 188209. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248370903155841Google Scholar
Holcomb, M. J., & Jacquin, K. M. (2007). Juror perceptions of child eyewitness testimony in a sexual abuse trial. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 16, 7995. https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v16n02_05Google Scholar
Holmes, P., & Farnfield, S. (2014). The Routledge handbook of attachment: Implications and interventions. Routledge/Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Howe, M. L. (2015). Memory development. In Liben, L. S., Muller, U. & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Cognitive processes (7th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 203249). Wiley.Google Scholar
Howe, M. L., Candel, I., Otgaar, H., Malone, C., & Wimmer, M. C. (2010). Valence and the development of immediate and long-term false memory illusions. Memory, 18, 5875. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210903476514Google Scholar
Howe, M. L., & Wilkinson, S. (2011). Using story contexts to bias children’s true and false memories. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(1), 7795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.06.009Google Scholar
Hughes, C., & Devine, R. T. (2015). A social perspective of theory of mind. In Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, edited by Lamb, M. E. and Lerner, R. M. (Vol. 3, pp. 564609). Wiley.Google Scholar
Hughes, M., & Grieve, R. (1980). On asking children bizarre questions. First Language, 1, 149160.Google Scholar
Johnson, M. K., Hashtroudi, S., & Lindsay, D. S. (1993). Source monitoring. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 328. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.3Google Scholar
Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 26, 312332. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000231CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karni-Visel, Y., Hirshkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., & Blasbalg, U. (2019). Facilitating the expression of emotions by alleged victims of child abuse during investigative interviews using the revised NICHD protocol. Child Maltreatment, 24, 310318. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559519831382Google Scholar
Karpinski, A. C., & Scullin, M. H. (2009). Suggestibility under pressure: Theory of mind, executive function, and suggestibility in preschoolers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 749763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2009.05.004Google Scholar
Klemfuss, J. Z. (2015). Differential contributions of language skills to children’s episodic recall. Journal of Cognition and Development, 16, 608620. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2014.952415Google Scholar
Klemfuss, J. Z., & Wang, Q. (2017). Narrative skills, gender, culture, and children’s long-term memory accuracy of a staged event. Journal of Cognition and Development, 18, 577594. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2017.1392308Google Scholar
Krähenbühl, S., Blades, M., & Eiser, C. (2009). The effect of repeated questioning on children’s accuracy and consistency in eyewitness testimony. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 14, 263278. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532508X398549CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krettenauer, T., Colastante, T., Buchmann, M., & Malti, T. (2014). The development of moral emotions and decision-making from adolescence to early adulthood: A 6-year longitudinal study. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 43, 583596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9994-5Google Scholar
Kulkofsky, S. (2010). The effect of verbal labels and vocabulary skill on memory and suggestibility. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 460466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2010.09.002Google Scholar
Kulkofsky, S., Principe, G. F., Debaran, F. B., & Stouch, A. (2011). Just the facts or just for fun? Children’s understanding of and sensitivity to retelling contexts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 727738. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1744Google Scholar
LaBar, K. S., & Cabeza, R. (2006). Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 5464. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1825CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamb, M. E., Orbach, Y., Hershkowitz, I., Esplin, P. W., & Hershkowitz, D. (2007a). A structured forensic interview protocol improves the quality of informativeness of investigative interviews with children: A review of research using the NICHD Investigative Interview Protocol. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 12011231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.03.021Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E., Orbach, Y., Warren, A. R., Esplin, P. W., & Hershkowitz, I. (2007b). Enhancing performance: Factors affecting the informativeness of young witnesses. In Toglia, M. P., Read, J. D., Ross, D. F. & Lindsay, R. C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of witness psychology (pp. 429451). Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Leventon, J. S., Stevens, J. S., & Bauer, P. J. (2014). Development in the neurophysiology of emotion process and memory in school-age children. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 2133. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (2019). Eyewitness testimony. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33, 498503. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3542Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: Example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Behavior, 13, 585589. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lowenstein, J. A., Blank, H., & Sauer, J. D. (2010). Uniforms affect the accuracy of children’s eyewitness identification decisions. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 7, 5973. https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.104Google Scholar
Mascaro, O., & Sperber, D. (2009). The moral, epistemic, and mindreading components of children’s vigilance towards deception. Cognition, 112(3), 367380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2009.05.012Google Scholar
McCauley, M. R., & Parker, J. F. (2001). When will a child be believed? The impact of victim’s age and juror’s gender on children’s credibility and verdict in a sexual-abuse case. Child Abuse and Neglect, 25, 523539. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00224-1Google Scholar
McGuire, K., London, K., & Wright, D. (2015). Developmental trends in false memory across adolescence and young adulthood: A comparison of DRM and memory conformity paradigms. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29, 334344. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3114Google Scholar
Meinhardt-Injac, B., Daum, M. M., & Meinhardt, G. (2020). Theory of mind development from adolescence to adulthood: Testing the two‐component model. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 38(2), 289303. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12320Google Scholar
Melinder, A., Goodman, G. S., Eilertsen, D. E., & Magnussen, S. (2004). Beliefs about child witnesses: A survey of professionals. Psychology, Crime & Law, 10(4), 347365. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160310001618717Google Scholar
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 8197. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343Google Scholar
Miller, P. H. (2002). Theories of developmental psychology (4th ed.). Worth.Google Scholar
Mitchell, K. J., Johnson, M. K., & Mather, M. (2003). Source monitoring and suggestibility to misinformation: Adult age-related differences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 107119. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.857Google Scholar
Mondloch, C. J., Geldart, S., Maurer, D., & Grand, R. L. (2003). Developmental changes in face processing skills. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 86, 6784. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0965(03)00102-4Google Scholar
Muller, U., & Kerns, K. (2015). The development of executive function. In Liben, L. S., Muller, U. & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Cognitive processes (7th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 571623). Wiley.Google Scholar
Newcombe, N. S., Balcomb, F., Ferrara, K., Hansen, M., & Koski, J. (2014). Two rooms, two representations? Episodic-like memory in toddlers and preschoolers. Developmental Science, 17, 743756. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12162Google Scholar
Ngo, C. T., Alm, K. H., Metoki, A. et al. (2017). White matter structural connectivity and episodic memory in early childhood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 28, 4153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.11.001Google Scholar
Nikonova, O., & Ogloff, J. R. P. (2005). Mock jurors’ perceptions of child witnesses: The impact of judicial warning. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 37(1), 119. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087241Google Scholar
Nordt, M., & Weigelt, S. (2017). Face recognition is similarly affected by viewpoint in school-aged children and adults. PeerJ 5:e3253. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3253Google Scholar
Nunez, N., Kehn, A., & Wright, D. B. (2011). When children are witnesses: The effects of context, age and gender on adults’ perceptions of cognitive ability and honesty. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 460468. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1713Google Scholar
Nysse-Carris, K. L., Bottoms, B. L., & Salerno, J. M. (2011). Experts’ and novices’ abilities to detect children’s high-stakes lies of omission. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 17, 7698. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022136Google Scholar
Okanda, M., & Itakura, S. (2010). When do children exhibit a “Yes” bias? Child Development, 81(2), 568580. https://doi-org.colby.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01416.xGoogle Scholar
Okanda, M., Kanda, T., Ishiguro, H., & Itakura, S. (2013). Three- and 4-year-old children’s response tendencies to various interviewers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116, 6877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.03.012Google Scholar
Okanda, M., Zhou, Y., Kanda, T., Ishiguro, H., & Itakura, S. (2018). I hear your yes-no questions: Children’s response tendencies to a humanoid robot. Infant and Child Development, 27, 19. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2079Google Scholar
Ornstein, P. A., Baker-Ward, L., Gordon, B. N. et al. (2006). The influence of prior knowledge and repeated questioning on children’s long-term retention of the details of a pediatric examination. Developmental Psychology, 42, 332344. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.332Google Scholar
Otgaar, H., de Ruiter, C., Sumampouw, N., Erens, B., & Muris, P. (2021). Protecting against misinformation: Examining the effect of empirically based investigative interviewing on misinformation reporting. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 36, 758768.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-020-09401-2Google Scholar
Otgaar, H., van Ansem, R., Pauw, C., & Horselenberg, R. (2016). Improving children’s interviewing methods? The effects of drawing and practice on children’s memories for an event. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 31, 279287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-016-9190-0Google Scholar
Pathman, T., Doydum, A., & Bauer, P. J. (2013). Bringing order to life events: Memory for the temporal order of autobiographical events over an extended period in school-aged children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 115, 309325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.01.011Google Scholar
Pathman, T., & Ghetti, S. (2014). The eyes know time: A novel paradigm to reveal the development of temporal memory. Child Development, 85, 792–807. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12152Google Scholar
Pathman, T., Larkina, M., Burch, M. M., & Bauer, P. J. (2013). Young children’s memories for the times of personal past events. Journal of Cognition and Development, 14, 120140. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2011.641185Google Scholar
Peterson, C. (2015). A decade later: Adolescents’ memory for medical emergencies. Applied Cognitive Development, 29, 826834. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3192Google Scholar
Peterson, C., Sales, J. M., Rees, M., & Fivush, R. (2007). Parent-child talk and children’s memory for stressful events. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 10571075. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1314Google Scholar
Picard, L., Cousin, S., Guillery-Girard, B., Eustache, F., & Piolino, P. (2012). How do the different components of episodic memory develop? Role of executive functions and short-term feature-binding abilities. Child Development, 83, 1037–1050. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01736.xGoogle Scholar
Pillemer, D. B., Picariello, M. L., & Pruett, J. C. (1994). Very long-term memories of a salient preschool event. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8, 95106. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2350080202Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Kistler, D. J. (2002). Early experience is associated with the development of early categorical representations for facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 90729076. www.pnas.org_cgi_doi_10.1073_pnas.142165999Google Scholar
Pons, F., Harris, P. L., & Rosnay, M. (2004). Emotion comprehension between 3 and 11 years: Developmental periods and hierarchical organization. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1(2), 127152. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405620344000022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poole, D. A., & Bruck, M. (2012). Divining testimony? The impact of interviewing props on children’s reports of touching. Developmental Review, 32, 165180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2012.06.007Google Scholar
Poole, D. A., & Lindsay, D. S. (1995). Interviewing preschoolers: Effects of nonsuggestive techniques, parental coaching, and leading questions on reports of nonexperienced events. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 60, 129154. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.1995.1035Google Scholar
Powell, M. B., Roberts, K. P., & Guadagno, B. (2007). Particularisation of child abuse offences: Common problems when questioning child witnesses. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 19, 6474. http://hdl.handle.net/10536/DRO/DU:30007276Google Scholar
Principe, G. F., Ornstein, P. A., Baker-Ward, L., & Gordon, B. N. (2000). The effects of intervening experiences on children’s memory for a physical examination. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 5980. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(200001)14:1<59::AID-ACP637>3.0.CO;2-4Google Scholar
Principe, G. F., Trumbull, J., Gardner, G., Van Horn, E., & Dean, A. M. (2017). The role of maternal elaborative structure and control in children’s memory and suggestibility for a past event. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 163, 1531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.06.001Google Scholar
Quas, J. A., Goodman, G. S., Bidrose, S. et al. (1999). Emotion and memory: Children’s long-term remembering, forgetting, and suggestibility. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 235270. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.1999.2491Google Scholar
Ratner, H. H., Foley, M. A., & Gimpert, N. (2002). The role of collaborative planning in children’s source monitoring errors and learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 81, 4473. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.2001.2643Google Scholar
Roberts, K. P., Brubacher, S. P., Drohan-Jennings, D. et al. (2015). Developmental differences in the ability to provide temporal information about repeated events. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29, 407417. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3118Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 2027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17, 249255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.xGoogle Scholar
Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(4), 803. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803Google Scholar
Rogoff, B. (2014). Learning by observing and pitching in to family and community endeavors: An orientation. Human Development, 57, 6981. https://doi.org/10.1159/000356757Google Scholar
Salmon, K., & Reese, E. (2015). Talking (or not talking) about the past: The influence of parent-child conversations about negative experiences on children’s memories. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29, 791801. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3186Google Scholar
Scarf, D., Bode, H., Labuschagne, L. G., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (2017). “What” and “where” was when? Memory for the temporal order of episodic events in children. Developmental Psychobiology, 59, 10391045. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21553Google Scholar
Scullin, M. H., & Ceci, S. J. (2001). A suggestibility scale for children. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 843856. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00077-5Google Scholar
Sheahan, C. L., Pica, E., & Puzzulo, J. D. (2021). Abuse is abuse: The influence of type of abuse, victim age, and defendant age on juror decision making. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36, 938956. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517731316Google Scholar
Sluzenski, J., Newcombe, N. S., & Kovacs, S. L. (2006). Binding, relational memory, and recall of naturalistic events: A developmental perspective. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 32, 89100. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.32.1.89Google Scholar
Smetana, J. G., & Ball, C. L. (2018). Young children’s moral judgments, justifications, and emotion attributions in peer relationship contexts. Child Development, 89(6), 22452263. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12846Google Scholar
Spring, T., Saltzstein, H. D., & Peach, R. (2013). Children’s eyewitness identification as implicit moral decision-making. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 27(2), 139149. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2871Google Scholar
Steblay, N., Dysart, J., Fulero, S., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (2001). Eyewitness accuracy rates in sequential and simultaneous lineup presentations: A meta-analytic comparison. Law and Human Behavior, 25(5), 459473. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1012888715007Google Scholar
Sutherland, R., Pipe, M.-E., Schick, K., Murray, J., & Gobbo, C. (2003). Knowing in advance: The impact of prior event information on memory and event knowledge. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 84, 244263. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0965(03)00021-3Google Scholar
Szekely, E., Lucassen, N., Tiemeier, H. et al. (2014). Maternal depressive symptoms and sensitivity are related to young children’s facial expression recognition: The Generation R Study. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 333345. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413001028Google Scholar
Talwar, V., Crossman, A., Williams, S., & Muir, S. (2011). Adult detection of children’s selfish and polite lies: Experience matters. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(12), 28372857. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00861.xGoogle Scholar
Talwar, V., Gordon, H. M., & Lee, K. (2007). Lying in the elementary school years: Verbal deception and its relation to second-order belief understanding. Developmental Psychology, 43, 804810. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.804Google Scholar
Talwar, V., Lavoie, J., & Grossman, A. M. (2019). Carving Pinocchio: Longitudinal examination of children’s lying for different goals. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 181, 3455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.12.0030022-0965/Google Scholar
Teoh, Y.-S., & Chang, T.-F. (2018). Comparing the effects of drawing and verbal recall techniques on children’s memory accounts. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 59, 631633. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12496Google Scholar
Tillman, K. A., & Barner, D. (2015). Learning the language of time: Children’s acquisition of duration words. Cognitive Psychology, 78, 5777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2015.03.001Google Scholar
Tobey, A. E., & Goodman, G. S. (1992). Children’s eyewitness memory: Effects of participation and forensic context. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16, 779796. https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(92)90081-2Google Scholar
Uhl, E. R., Camilletti, C. R., Scullin, M. H., & Wood, J. M. (2016). Under pressure: Individual differences in children’s suggestibility in response to intense social influence. Social Development, 25(2), 422434. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12156Google Scholar
Van Bergen, P., Wall, J., & Salmon, K. (2015). The good, the bad, and the neutral: The influence of emotional valence on young children’s recall. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 4, 2935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.11.001Google Scholar
Van de Kaap-Deeder, J., Soenens, B., Moratidis, A. et al. (2020). Towards a detailed understanding of preschool children’s memory-related functioning and emotion regulation: The role of parents’ observed reminiscence style, memory valence, and parental gender. Developmental Psychology, 56, 16961708. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001048Google Scholar
Van de Vondervoort, J. W., & Hamlin, J. K. (2017). Preschoolers’ social and moral judgments of third-party helpers and hinderers align with infants’ social evaluations. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 164, 136151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.07.004Google Scholar
Voogt, A., & Klettke, B. (2017). The effect of gender on perceptions of credibility in child sexual assault cases: A systematic review. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 26, 195212. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2017.1280576Google Scholar
Voogt, A., Klettke, B., & Crossman, A. (2019). Measurement of victim credibility in child sexual assault cases: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 20, 5166. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016683460Google Scholar
Voogt, A., Klettke, B., & Thomson, D. M. (2017). The development of a conceptual model of perceived victim credibility in child sexual assault cases. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 24, 760769. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2017.1315764Google Scholar
Voogt, A., Klettke, B., Thomson, D. M., & Crossman, A. (2020). The impact of extralegal factors on perceived credibility of child victims of sexual assault. Psychology, Crime & Law, 26, 823848. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2020.1742336Google Scholar
Walter, J. L., & LaFreniere, P. J. (2007). Preschoolers’ avoidance in a mishap paradigm: Implications of emotional adjustment, guilt, and shame. North American Journal of Psychology, 9, 111130.Google Scholar
Wandry, L., Lyon, T. D., Quas, J. A., & Friedman, W. J. (2012). Maltreated children’s ability to estimate temporal location and numerosity of placement changes and court visits. Psychology, Public Policy, and the Law, 18, 79104. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024812Google Scholar
Want, S. C., Pascalis, O., Coleman, M., & Blades, M. (2003). Recognizing people from the inner or outer parts of their faces: Developmental data concerning “unfamiliar” faces. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 125135. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151003321164663Google Scholar
Watanabe, Y., & Lee, K. (2016). Children’s motive for admitting to prosocial behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doaj.org/article/3641581559c74264a94331bca6cd0339Google Scholar
Waterman, A. H., & Blades, M. (2013). The effect of delay and individual differences on children’s tendency to guess. Developmental Psychology, 49, 215226. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028354Google Scholar
Wellman, H. M. (2014). Making minds: How theory of mind develops. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wright, D. B., Hanoteau, F., Parkinson, C., & Tatham, A. (2010). Perceptions about memory reliability and honesty for children of 3 to 18 years old. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 15, 195207. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532508X400347Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Frye, D., & Rapus, T. (1996). An age-related dissociation between knowing rules and using them. Cognitive Development, 11, 3763. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2014(96)90027-1Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., & Muller, U. (2011). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In Goswami, U. (Ed.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development (2nd ed., pp. 574603). Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Children's Eyewitness Testimony and Event Memory
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Children's Eyewitness Testimony and Event Memory
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Children's Eyewitness Testimony and Event Memory
Available formats
×