Ghostwriting and Patronage-Seeking Letters in Song Dynasty China, 960–1279

Summary

This article exami nes the phenomenon of “ghostwritten” patronage-seeking letters in Song dynasty (960–1279) China. Such letters stand at the intersection of two common literary and social practices in imperial China: the writing of letters to seek patronage, and the writing of documents of various kinds by men other than the putative author. Each of these practices had its own histories and social-political implications, and ghostwritten letters seeking patronage allow us to explore those histories. They also engage several of the themes central to this issue: the role of seeking or granting favour in the establishment of social networks; the ways that rhetoric delineates social hierarchies; and, especially, the issue of authenticity.

Patronage-Seeking Letters

Since at least the Warring States period (475–221 bce), the social and political systems of China were based on patronage relations. Early dynasties recruited officials through personal recommendation, and even after the Tang dynasty (618–904) adopted an examination system for official recruitment, personal relationships with the examiners were widely seen as necessary for examination success. In the early Song dynasty (960–1279), recruitment by examination was greatly expanded, and efforts were made to reduce the impact of personal relationships—for example, by covering up the candidates’ names. But the idea that official success relied on “becoming known” and mentored by senior officials remained salient, not least because many stages of the recruitment and promotion processes required a candidate to have guarantors or sponsors. Successful officials, for their part, found it useful to keep an entourage of talented young men around them, often providing them with financial as well as other forms of support. The younger men received guidance and learned the ways of the bureaucracy while also making useful connections. In turn, they provided the senior official with assistance of various kinds, providing specialized knowledge, helping to draft documents, and in some cases tutoring the official's children. These protégés were known as “household guests” (men ke 門客), and the relationships thus established were expected to last throughout the lives both of the patron and the “guest.” Moreover, such relationships were informally and formally recognized by the government. Beginning in the eleventh century, officials were allowed to recommend a certain number of “household guests” for special “avoidance” examinations, which were usually easier to pass than the regular examinations.