2 - The Middle East and North Africa
Summary
Over the long period of its existence, the relationship between the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922) and Western Europe went through different phases depending on their relative strengths. Modern historiography, as presented by D. Gofman and others, presents a more positive view of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century. In the nineteenth century, however, European views of the empire were predominantly negative. Until the mid-nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was not considered a civilized state, according to the European standard of civilization, and was excluded from the Family of Nations. This was, says D. Rodogno, sufficient reason for several military interventions for the sake of humanity, civilization and Christianity. Ottoman relations with Europe were guided by Islamic law and customs, but additionally by much pragmatism. This becomes clear from the relationship between natives and foreigners and the role of consuls in Muslim states. Consuls, because they were Christians, were forced to cope with a different system of international relations in the Middle East and North Africa. The Islamic system was based on inequality between states and a clear hierarchy existed, with the sultan in Istanbul at its head. International relations were conducted after concluding treaties that were binding only for as long as the ruler lived. To obtain the privilege of trading, vassal states paid tribute to the sultan or one of his replacements.
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- Publisher: Pickering & ChattoFirst published in: 2014