Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T11:45:04.987Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 4 - Antibodies to Intracellular Antigens in CNS Disorders

from Section 2 - Antibodies and Antigens

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2022

Josep Dalmau  and
Francesc Graus
Josep Dalmau
Affiliation:
Universitat de Barcelona
Francesc Graus
Affiliation:
Universitat de Barcelona
Get access

Summary

Antibodies against neural intracellular antigens have been classified in three groups: (1) markers of paraneoplastic neurological syndromes (onconeural antibodies) and therefore the presence of an underlying cancer; (2) markers of non-paraneoplastic neurological syndromes; and (3) markers of autoimmune retinopathies. All antibodies against neural intracellular proteins recognize linear epitopes, are detected by immunoblot, and are considered non-pathogenic. An exception is the amphiphysin antibodies that can potentially reach the antigen that is briefly exposed to the extracellular space during the process of synaptic vesicle recycling. The most common onconeural antibodies are Hu (markers of paraneoplastic neurological syndromes associated with small-cell lung cancer), Yo (paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and breast and ovarian cancer), and Ma2 (limbic and brainstem encephalitis with testicular seminomas). The two most common antibodies present in non-paraneoplastic CNS syndromes are glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) antibodies. GAD antibodies are biomarkers of stiff-person syndrome and also occur in some patients with cerebellar ataxia or drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy. GFAP antibodies associate with meningoencephalitis and a broad spectrum of symptoms without a clear specific syndrome. Unlike the other antibodies against intracellular antigens that are usually detectable in serum and CSF, GFAP antibodies are predominantly detected in CSF.

Keywords

Onconeural (Hu, Yo, Ri, CV2, SOX1, Ma2) antibodiesglutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) antibodiesglial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) antibodiesparaneoplastic neurological syndromesautoimmune retinopathy
Type
Chapter
Information
Autoimmune Encephalitis and Related Disorders of the Nervous System , pp. 107 - 134
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Patrick, J, Lindstrom, J. Autoimmune response to acetylcholine receptor. Science 1973;180:871–872.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindstrom, JM, Lambert, EH. Content of acetylcholine receptor and antibodies bound to receptor in myasthenia gravis, experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis, and Eaton–Lambert syndrome. Neurology 1978;28:130–138.Google Scholar
Motomura, M, Johnston, I, Lang, B, Newsom-Davis, J. Anticalcium channel antibodies detected using Conus magus toxin in Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome sera. Ann Neurol 1994;36:324.Google Scholar
Shillito, P, Molenaar, PC, Vincent, A, et al. Acquired neuromyotonia: evidence for autoantibodies directed against K+ channels of peripheral nerves. Ann Neurol 1995;38:714–722.Google Scholar
Vernino, S, Adamski, J, Kryzer, TJ, Fealey, RD, Lennon, VA. Neuronal nicotinic ACh receptor antibody in subacute autonomic neuropathy and cancer-related syndromes. Neurology 1998;50:1806–1813.Google Scholar
Greenlee, JE, Brashear, HR. Antibodies to cerebellar Purkinje cells in patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and ovarian carcinoma. Ann Neurol 1983;14:609–613.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Cordon-Cardo, C, Posner, JB. Neuronal antinuclear antibody in sensory neuronopathy from lung cancer. Neurology 1985;35:538–543.Google Scholar
Budde-Steffen, C, Anderson, NE, Rosenblum, MK, et al. An antineuronal autoantibody in paraneoplastic opsoclonus. Ann Neurol 1988;23:528–531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darnell, RB. Onconeural antigens and the paraneoplastic neurologic disorders: at the intersection of cancer, immunity, and the brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996;93:4529–4536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graus, F, Cordon-Cardo, C, Posner, JB. Neuronal antinuclear antibody in sensory neuronopathy from lung cancer. Neurology 1985;35:538–543.Google Scholar
Budde-Steffen, C, Anderson, NE, Rosenblum, MK, et al. An antineuronal autoantibody in paraneoplastic opsoclonus. Ann Neurol 1988;23:528–531.Google Scholar
Solimena, M, Folli, F, Denis-Donini, S, et al. Autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in a patient with stiff-man syndrome, epilepsy, and type I diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1988;318:1012–1020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thirkill, CE, Fitzgerald, P, Sergott, RC, et al. Cancer-associated retinopathy (CAR syndrome) with antibodies reacting with retinal, optic-nerve, and cancer cells [see comments]. N Eng J Med 1989;321:1589–1594.Google Scholar
Sakai, K, Mitchell, DJ, Tsukamoto, T, Steinman, L. Isolation of a complementary DNA clone encoding an autoantigen recognized by an anti-neuronal cell antibody from a patient with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration [published erratum appears in Ann Neurol 1991 Nov;30(5):738]. Ann Neurol 1990;28:692–698.Google Scholar
Solimena, M, Folli, F, Aparisi, R, Pozza, G, De Camilli, P. Autoantibodies to GABA-ergic neurons and pancreatic beta cells in stiff-man syndrome. N Eng J Med 1990;322:1555–1560.Google Scholar
Polans, AS, Buczylko, J, Crabb, J, Palczewski, K. A photoreceptor calcium binding protein is recognized by autoantibodies obtained from patients with cancer-associated retinopathy. J Cell Biol 1991;112:981–989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luque, FA, Furneaux, HM, Ferziger, R, et al. Anti-Ri: an antibody associated with paraneoplastic opsoclonus and breast cancer. Ann Neurol 1991;29:241–251.Google Scholar
Szabo, A, Dalmau, J, Manley, G, et al. HuD, a paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis antigen, contains RNA-binding domains and is homologous to Elav and Sex-lethal. Cell 1991;67:325–333.Google Scholar
Peterson, K, Rosenblum, MK, Kotanides, H, Posner, JB. Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. I. A clinical analysis of 55 anti-Yo antibody-positive patients. Neurology 1992;42:1931–1937.Google Scholar
Dalmau, J, Graus, F, Rosenblum, MK, Posner, JB. Anti-Hu–associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis/sensory neuronopathy: a clinical study of 71 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 1992;71:59–72.Google Scholar
Buckanovich, RJ, Posner, JB, Darnell, RB. Nova, the paraneoplastic Ri antigen, is homologous to an RNA-binding protein and is specifically expressed in the developing motor system. Neuron 1993;11:657–672.Google Scholar
Antoine, JC, Honnorat, J, Vocanson, C, et al. Posterior uveitis, paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis and auto-antibodies reacting with developmental protein of brain and retina. J Neurol Sci 1993;117:215–223.Google Scholar
Folli, F, Solimena, M, Cofiell, R, et al. Autoantibodies to a 128-kd synaptic protein in three women with the stiff-man syndrome and breast cancer. N Eng J Med 1993;328:546–551.Google Scholar
De Camilli, P, Thomas, A, Cofiell, R, et al. The synaptic vesicle-associated protein amphiphysin is the 128-kD autoantigen of stiff-man syndrome with breast cancer. J Exp Med 1993;178:2219–2223.Google Scholar
Dropcho, EJ. Antiamphiphysin antibodies with small-cell lung carcinoma and paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis. Ann Neural 1996;39:659–667.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Dalmau, J, Valldeoriola, F, et al. Immunological characterization of a neuronal antibody (anti-Tr) associated with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and Hodgkin’s disease. J Neuroimmunol 1997;74:55–61.Google Scholar
Saiz, A, Arpa, J, Sagasta, A, et al. Autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in three patients with cerebellar ataxia, late-onset insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, and polyendocrine autoimmunity. Neurology 1997;49:1026–1030.Google Scholar
Giometto, B, Nicolao, P, Macucci, M, et al. Temporal-lobe epilepsy associated with glutamic-acid-decarboxylase autoantibodies. Lancet 1998;352:457.Google Scholar
Dalmau, J, Gultekin, SH, Voltz, R, et al. Ma1, a novel neuron- and testis-specific protein, is recognized by the serum of patients with paraneoplastic neurological disorders. Brain 1999; 122:27–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voltz, R, Gultekin, SH, Rosenfeld, MR, et al. A serologic marker of paraneoplastic limbic and brain-stem encephalitis in patients with testicular cancer [see comments]. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1788–1795.Google Scholar
Gure, AO, Stockert, E, Scanlan, MJ, et al. Serological identification of embryonic neural proteins as highly immunogenic tumor antigens in small cell lung cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:4198–4203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vernino, S, Lennon, VA. New Purkinje cell antibody (PCA-2): marker of lung cancer-related neurological autoimmunity. Ann Neurol 2000;47:297–305.Google Scholar
Yu, Z, Kryzer, TJ, Griesmann, GE, et al. CRMP-5 neuronal autoantibody: marker of lung cancer and thymoma-related autoimmunity. Ann Neurol 2001;49:146–154.Google Scholar
Dalmau, J, Graus, F, Villarejo, A, et al. Clinical analysis of anti-Ma2-associated encephalitis. Brain 2004;127:1831–1844.Google Scholar
Sommer, C, Weishaupt, A, Brinkhoff, J, et al. Paraneoplastic stiff-person syndrome: passive transfer to rats by means of IgG antibodies to amphiphysin. Lancet 2005;365:1406–1411.Google Scholar
Sabater, L, Titulaer, M, Saiz, A, et al. SOX1 antibodies are markers of paraneoplastic Lambert Eaton myasthenic syndrome. Neurology 2008;70:924–928.Google Scholar
de Graaff, E, Maat, P, Hulsenboom, E, et al. Identification of delta/notch-like epidermal growth factor-related receptor as the Tr antigen in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Ann Neurol 2012;71:815–824.Google Scholar
Fang, B, McKeon, A, Hinson, SR, et al. Autoimmune glial fibrillary acidic protein astrocytopathy: a novel meningoencephalomyelitis. JAMA Neurol 2016;73:1297–1307.Google Scholar
Gadoth, A, Kryzer, TJ, Fryer, J, et al. Microtubule-associated protein 1B: novel paraneoplastic biomarker. Ann Neurol 2017;81:266–277.Google Scholar
Krakenes, T, Herdlevaer, I, Raspotnig, M, et al. CDR2L is the major Yo antibody target in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Ann Neurol 2019;86:316–321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandel-Brehm, C, Dubey, D, Kryzer, TJ, et al. Kelch-like protein 11 antibodies in seminoma-associated paraneoplastic encephalitis. N Engl J Med 2019;381:47–54.Google Scholar
Seeger, RC, Zeltzer, PM, Rayner, SA. Onco-neural antigen: a new neural differentiation antigen expressed by neuroblastoma, oat cell carcinoma, Wilms’ tumor, and sarcoma cells. J Immunol 1979;122:1548–1555.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Delattre, JY, Antoine, JC, et al. Recommended diagnostic criteria for paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75:1135–1140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernal, F, Graus, F, Pifarre, A, et al. Immunohistochemical analysis of anti-Hu-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 2002;103:509–515.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Dalmau, J. Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Curr Opin Neurol 2012;25:795–801.Google Scholar
Greenlee, JE, Boyden, JW, Pingree, M, et al. Antibody types and IgG subclasses in paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. J Neurol Sci 2001;184:131–137.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Illa, I, Agusti, M, Ribalta, T, Cruz-Sanchez, F. Effect of intraventricular injection of an anti-Purkinje cell antibody (anti-Yo) in a guinea pig model. J Neurol Sci 1991;106:82–87.Google Scholar
Carpentier, AF, Rosenfeld, MR, Delattre, JY, et al. DNA vaccination with HuD inhibits growth of a neuroblastoma in mice. Clin Cancer Res 1998;4:2819–2824.Google Scholar
Pellkofer, H, Schubart, AS, Hoftberger, R, et al. Modelling paraneoplastic CNS disease: T-cells specific for the onconeuronal antigen PNMA1 mediate autoimmune encephalomyelitis in the rat. Brain 2004;127:1822–1830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernal, F, Shams’ili, S, Rojas, I, et al. Anti-Tr antibodies as markers of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and Hodgkin’s disease. Neurology 2003;60:230–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graus, F, Vogrig, A, Muñiz-Castrillo, S, et al. Updated diagnostic criteria for paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2021;8:e1014.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Keime-Guibert, F, Rene, R, et al. Anti-Hu-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis: analysis of 200 patients. Brain 2001;124:1138–1148.Google Scholar
Pittock, SJ, Lucchinetti, CF, Lennon, VA. Anti-neuronal nuclear autoantibody type 2: paraneoplastic accompaniments. Ann Neurol 2003;53:580–587.Google Scholar
Pittock, SJ, Lucchinetti, CF, Parisi, JE, et al. Amphiphysin autoimmunity: paraneoplastic accompaniments. Ann Neurol 2005;58:96–107.Google Scholar
Maudes, E, Landa, J, Munoz-Lopetegi, A, et al. Clinical significance of Kelch-like protein 11 antibodies. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2020;7;e666.Google Scholar
Dubey, D, Wilson, MR, Clarkson, B, et al. Expanded clinical phenotype, oncological associations, and immunopathologic insights of paraneoplastic Kelch-like protein-11 encephalitis. JAMA Neurol 2020;77:1420–1429.Google Scholar
Bronicki, LM, Jasmin, BJ. Emerging complexity of the HuD/ELAVl4 gene: implications for neuronal development, function, and dysfunction. RNA (New York, NY) 2013;19:1019–1037.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Dalmau, J, Rene, R, et al. Anti-Hu antibodies in patients with small-cell lung cancer: association with complete response to therapy and improved survival. Chin Ger J Clin Oncol 1997;15:2866–2872.Google Scholar
Brot, S, Smaoune, H, Youssef-Issa, M, et al. Collapsin response-mediator protein 5 (CRMP5) phosphorylation at threonine 516 regulates neurite outgrowth inhibition. Eur J Neurosci 2014;40:3010–3020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sabater, L, Saiz, A, Dalmau, J, Graus, F. Pitfalls in the detection of CV2 (CRMP5) antibodies. J Neuroimmunol 2016;290:80–83.Google Scholar
Julian, LM, McDonald, AC, Stanford, WL. Direct reprogramming with SOX factors: masters of cell fate. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2017;46:24–36.Google Scholar
Ruiz-Garcia, R, Martinez-Hernandez, E, Garcia-Ormaechea, M, et al. Caveats and pitfalls of SOX1 autoantibody testing with a commercial line blot assay in paraneoplastic neurological investigations. Front Immunol 2019;10:769.Google Scholar
Herdlevær, I, Haugen, M, Mazengia, K, Totland, C, Vedeler, C. Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration: the importance of including cdr2l as a diagnostic marker. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2021;8:e963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werner, C, Pauli, M, Doose, S, et al. Human autoantibodies to amphiphysin induce defective presynaptic vesicle dynamics and composition. Brain 2016;139:365–379.Google Scholar
Dalmau, J, Voltz, R, Eichen, JG, et al. Antibodies against Ma1–Ma5 define distinct paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes associated with limbic, brainstem, or cerebellar dysfunction. Neurology 1999;52:197–198.Google Scholar
Villarroel-Campos, D, Gonzalez-Billault, C. The MAP1B case: an old MAP that is new again. Dev Neurobiol 2014;74:953–971.Google Scholar
McKeon, A, Tracy, JA, Pittock, SJ, et al. Purkinje cell cytoplasmic autoantibody type 1 accompaniments: the cerebellum and beyond. Arch Neurol 2011;68:1282–1289.Google Scholar
Petit, T, Janser, JC, Achour, NR, Borel, C, Haegele, P. Paraneoplastic temporal lobe epilepsy and anti-Yo autoantibody. Ann Oncol 1997;8:919.Google Scholar
Goldstein, L, Djaldetti, R, Benninger, F. Anti-Yo, chorea and hemiballismus: a case report. J Clin Neurosci 2017;42:113–114.Google Scholar
Khwaja, S, Sripathi, N, Ahmad, BK, Lennon, VA. Paraneoplastic motor neuron disease with type 1 Purkinje cell antibodies. Muscle Nerve 1998;21:943–945.Google Scholar
McNamara, P, Costelloe, L, Langan, Y, Redmond, J. Anti-Yo positive dorsal root ganglionopathy. J Neurol 2011;258:519–520.Google Scholar
Altermatt, HJ, Rodriguez, M, Scheithauer, BW, Lennon, VA. Paraneoplastic anti-Purkinje and type I anti-neuronal nuclear autoantibodies bind selectively to central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous system cells. Lab Investig 1991;65:412–420.Google Scholar
Monstad, SE, Storstein, A, Dorum, A, et al. Yo antibodies in ovarian and breast cancer patients detected by a sensitive immunoprecipitation technique. Clin Exp Immunol 2006;144:53–58.Google Scholar
Linnoila, J, Guo, Y, Gadoth, A, et al. Purkinje cell cytoplasmic antibody type I (anti-Yo): predictive of gastrointestinal adenocarcinomas in men. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2018;89:1116–1117.Google Scholar
Rojas, I, Graus, F, Keime-Guibert, F, et al. Long-term clinical outcome of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and anti-Yo antibodies. Neurology 2000;55:713–715.Google Scholar
Cunningham, J, Graus, F, Anderson, N, Posner, JB. Partial characterization of the Purkinje cell antigens in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Neurology 1986;36:1163–1168.Google Scholar
Dropcho, EJ, Chen, YT, Posner, JB, Old, LJ. Cloning of a brain protein identified by autoantibodies from a patient with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987;84:4552–4556.Google Scholar
Furneaux, HM, Dropcho, EJ, Barbut, D, et al. Characterization of a cDNA encoding a 34-kDa Purkinje neuron protein recognized by sera from patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989;86:2873–2877.Google Scholar
Totland, C, Krakenes, T, Mazengia, K, Haugen, M, Vedeler, C. Expression of the onconeural protein CDR1 in cerebellum and ovarian cancer. Oncotarget 2018;9:23975–23986.Google Scholar
Fathallah-Shaykh, H, Wolf, S, Wong, E, Posner, JB, Furneaux, HM. Cloning of a leucine-zipper protein recognized by the sera of patients with antibody-associated paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991;88:3451–3454.Google Scholar
Darnell, JC, Albert, ML, Darnell, RB. Cdr2, a target antigen of naturally occuring human tumor immunity, is widely expressed in gynecological tumors. Cancer Res 2000;60:2136–2139.Google Scholar
Corradi, JP, Yang, CW, Darnell, JC, Dalmau, J, Darnell, RB. A post-transcriptional regulatory mechanism restricts expression of the paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration antigen cdr2 to immune privileged tissues. J Neurosci 1997;17:1406–1415.Google Scholar
Sakai, K, Ogasawara, T, Hirose, G, Jaeckle, KA, Greenlee, JE. Analysis of autoantibody binding to 52-kd paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration-associated antigen expressed in recombinant proteins. Ann Neurol 1993;33:373–380.Google Scholar
Herdlevaer, I, Kråkenes, T, Schubert, M, Vedeler, CA. Localization of CDR2L and CDR2 in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2020;7;2231–2242.Google Scholar
Okano, HJ, Park, WY, Corradi, JP, Darnell, RB. The cytoplasmic Purkinje onconeural antigen cdr2 down-regulates c-Myc function: implications for neuronal and tumor cell survival. Genes Dev 1999;13:2087–2097.Google Scholar
O’Donovan, KJ, Diedler, J, Couture, GC, Fak, JJ, Darnell, RB. The onconeural antigen cdr2 is a novel APC/C target that acts in mitosis to regulate c-myc target genes in mammalian tumor cells. PLoS One 2010;5:e10045.Google Scholar
Eichler, TW, Totland, C, Haugen, M, et al. CDR2L antibodies: a new player in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. PLoS One 2013;8:e66002.Google Scholar
Raspotnig, M, Haugen, M, Thorsteinsdottir, M, et al. Cerebellar degeneration-related proteins 2 and 2-like are present in ovarian cancer in patients with and without Yo antibodies. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2017;66:1463–1471.Google Scholar
Ruiz-García, R, Martínez-Hernández, E, Saiz, A, Dalmau, J, Graus, F. The diagnostic value of onconeural antibodies depends on how they are tested. Front Immunol 2020;11:1482.Google Scholar
Small, M, Treilleux, I, Couillault, C, et al. Genetic alterations and tumor immune attack in Yo paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Acta Neuropathol 2018;135:569–579.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Elkon, KB, Cordon-Cardo, C, Posner, JB. Sensory neuronopathy and small cell lung cancer: antineuronal antibody that also reacts with the tumor. Am J Med 1986;80:45–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henson, RA, Hoffman, HL, Urich, H. Encephalomyelitis with carcinoma. Brain 1965;88:449–464.Google Scholar
Honnorat, J, Didelot, A, Karantoni, E, et al. Autoimmune limbic encephalopathy and anti-Hu antibodies in children without cancer. Neurology 2013;80:2226–2232.Google Scholar
Antunes, NL, Khakoo, Y, Matthay, KK, et al. Antineuronal antibodies in patients with neuroblastoma and paraneoplastic opsoclonus-myoclonus. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2000;22:315–320.Google Scholar
Liu, J, Dalmau, J, Szabo, A, et al. Paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis antigens bind to the AU-rich elements of mRNA. Neurology 1995;45:544–550.Google Scholar
Ince-Dunn, G, Okano, HJ, Jensen, KB, et al. Neuronal Elav-like (Hu) proteins regulate RNA splicing and abundance to control glutamate levels and neuronal excitability. Neuron 2012;75:1067–1080.Google Scholar
Manley, GT, Smitt, PS, Dalmau, J, Posner, JB. Hu antigens: reactivity with Hu antibodies, tumor expression, and major immunogenic sites. Ann Neurol 1995;38:102–110.Google Scholar
Kumagai, T, Kitagawa, Y, Hirose, G, Sakai, K. Antibody recognition and RNA binding of a neuronal nuclear autoantigen associated with paraneoplastic neurological syndromes and small cell lung carcinoma. J Neuroimmunol 1999;93:37–44.Google Scholar
Dalmau, J, Furneaux, HM, Cordon-Cardo, C, Posner, JB. The expression of the Hu (paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis/sensory neuronopathy) antigen in human normal and tumor tissues. Am J Pathol 1992;141:881–886.Google Scholar
Carpentier, AF, Voltz, R, DesChamps, T, et al. Absence of HuD gene mutations in paraneoplastic small cell lung cancer tissue. Neurology 1998;50:1919.Google Scholar
D’Alessandro, V, Muscarella, LA, la Torre, A, et al. Molecular analysis of the HuD gene in neuroendocrine lung cancers. Lung Cancer 2010;67:69–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pulido, MA, DerHartunian, MK, Qin, Z, et al. Isoaspartylation appears to trigger small cell lung cancer-associated autoimmunity against neuronal protein ELAVL4. J Neuroimmunol 2016;299:70–78.Google Scholar
Fueyo, J, Ferrer, I, Valldeoriola, F, Graus, F. The expression of a neuronal nuclear antigen (Ri) recognized by the human anti-Ri autoantibody in the developing rat nervous system. Neurosci Lett 1993;162:141–144.Google Scholar
McCabe, DJ, Turner, NC, Chao, D, et al. Paraneoplastic ‘stiff person syndrome’ with metastatic adenocarcinoma and anti-Ri antibodies. Neurology 2004;62:1402–1404.Google Scholar
Pittock, SJ, Parisi, JE, McKeon, A, et al. Paraneoplastic jaw dystonia and laryngospasm with antineuronal nuclear autoantibody type 2 (anti-Ri). Arch Neurol 2010;67:1109–1115.Google Scholar
Simard, C, Vogrig, A, Joubert, B, et al. Clinical spectrum and diagnostic pitfalls of neurologic syndromes with Ri antibodies. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2020;7:e699.Google Scholar
Brieva-Ruiz, L, Diaz-Hurtado, M, Matias-Guiu, X, et al. Anti-Ri-associated paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and breast cancer: an autopsy case study. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2008;110:1044–1046.Google Scholar
Younger, DS, Graber, J, Hayakawa-Yano, Y, et al. Ri/Nova gene-associated paraneoplastic subacute motor neuronopathy. Muscle Nerve 2013;47:617–618.Google Scholar
Sutton, IJ, Barnett, MH, Watson, JD, Ell, JJ, Dalmau, J. Paraneoplastic brainstem encephalitis and anti-Ri antibodies. J Neurol 2002;249:1597–1598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drlicek, M, Bianchi, G, Bogliun, G, et al. Antibodies of the anti-Yo and anti-Ri type in the absence of paraneoplastic neurological syndromes: a long-term survey of ovarian cancer patients. J Neurol 1997;244:85–89.Google Scholar
Monstad, SE, Knudsen, A, Salvesen, HB, Aarseth, JH, Vedeler, CA. Onconeural antibodies in sera from patients with various types of tumours. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2009;58:1795–1800.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Rowe, G, Fueyo, J, Darnell, RB, Dalmau, J. The neuronal nuclear antigen recognized by the human anti-Ri autoantibody is expressed in central but not peripheral nervous system neurons. Neurosci Lett 1993;150:212–214.Google Scholar
Yang, YY, Yin, GL, Darnell, RB. The neuronal RNA-binding protein Nova-2 is implicated as the autoantigen targeted in POMA patients with dementia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:13254–13259.Google Scholar
Jensen, KB, Dredge, BK, Stefani, G, et al. Nova-1 regulates neuron-specific alternative splicing and is essential for neuronal viability [see comments]. Neuron 2000;25:359–371.Google Scholar
Buckanovich, RJ, Yang, YY, Darnell, RB. The onconeural antigen Nova-1 is a neuron-specific RNA-binding protein, the activity of which is inhibited by paraneoplastic antibodies. J Neurosci 1996;16:1114–1122.Google Scholar
Zhang, YA, Liu, HN, Zhu, JM, et al. RNA binding protein Nova1 promotes tumor growth in vivo and its potential mechanism as an oncogene may due to its interaction with GABAA Receptor-gamma2. J Biomed Sci 2016;23:71.Google Scholar
Li, C, He, Y, Ma, H, Han, S. NOVA1 acts as an oncogene in osteosarcoma. Am J Transl Res 2017;9:4450–4457.Google Scholar
Antoine, JC, Honnorat, J, Anterion, CT, et al. Limbic encephalitis and immunological perturbations in two patients with thymoma. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995;58:706–710.Google Scholar
Honnorat, J, Antoine, JC, Derrington, E, Aguera, M, Belin, MF. Antibodies to a subpopulation of glial cells and a 66 kDa developmental protein in patients with paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996;61:270–278.Google Scholar
Cross, SA, Salomao, DR, Parisi, JE, et al. Paraneoplastic autoimmune optic neuritis with retinitis defined by CRMP-5-IgG. Ann Neurol 2003;54:38–50.Google Scholar
Cohen, DA, Bhatti, MT, Pulido, JS, et al. Collapsin response-mediator protein 5-associated retinitis, vitritis, and optic disc edema. Ophthalmology 2020;127:221–229.Google Scholar
Jarius, S, Wandinger, KP, Borowski, K, Stoecker, W, Wildemann, B. Antibodies to CV2/CRMP5 in neuromyelitis optica-like disease: case report and review of the literature. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2012;114:331–335.Google Scholar
Vernino, S, Tuite, P, Adler, CH, et al. Paraneoplastic chorea associated with CRMP-5 neuronal antibody and lung carcinoma. Ann Neurol 2002;51:625–630.Google Scholar
Dubey, D, Lennon, VA, Gadoth, A, et al. Autoimmune CRMP5 neuropathy phenotype and outcome defined from 105 cases. Neurology 2018;90:e103–e110.Google Scholar
Antoine, JC, Honnorat, J, Camdessanche, JP, et al. Paraneoplastic anti-CV2 antibodies react with peripheral nerve and are associated with a mixed axonal and demyelinating peripheral neuropathy. Ann Neurol 2001;49:214–221.Google Scholar
Bataller, L, Wade, DF, Graus, F, et al. Antibodies to Zic4 in paraneoplastic neurologic disorders and small-cell lung cancer. Neurology 2004;62:778–782.Google Scholar
Monstad, SE, Drivsholm, L, Skeie, GO, Aarseth, JH, Vedeler, CA. CRMP5 antibodies in patients with small-cell lung cancer or thymoma. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2008;57:227–232.Google Scholar
Schmidt, EF, Strittmatter, SM. The CRMP family of proteins and their role in Sema3A signaling. Adv Exp Med Biol 2007;600:1–11.Google Scholar
Naudet, N, Moutal, A, Vu, HN, et al. Transcriptional regulation of CRMP5 controls neurite outgrowth through Sox5. Cell Molec Life Sci 2018;75:67–79.Google Scholar
Ricard, D, Rogemond, V, Charrier, E, et al. Isolation and expression pattern of human Unc-33-like phosphoprotein 6/collapsin response mediator protein 5 (Ulip6/CRMP5): coexistence with Ulip2/CRMP2 in Sema3a-sensitive oligodendrocytes. J Neurosci 2001;21:7203–7214.Google Scholar
Brot, S, Malleval, C, Benetollo, C, et al. Identification of a new CRMP5 isoform present in the nucleus of cancer cells and enhancing their proliferation. Exp Cell Res 2013;319:588–599.Google Scholar
Murinson, BB, Guarnaccia, JB. Stiff-person syndrome with amphiphysin antibodies: distinctive features of a rare disease. Neurology 2008;71:1955–1958.Google Scholar
Saiz, A, Dalmau, J, Butler, MH, et al. Anti-amphiphysin I antibodies in patients with paraneoplastic neurological disorders associated with small cell lung carcinoma. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;66:214–217.Google Scholar
Irani, SR. ‘Moonlighting’ surface antigens: a paradigm for autoantibody pathogenicity in neurology? Brain 2016;139:304–306.Google Scholar
Trotter, JL, Hendin, BA, Osterland, K. Cerebellar degeneration with Hodgkin’s disease: an immunological study. Arch Neurol 1976;33:660–661.Google Scholar
Hammack, J, Kotanides, H, Rosenblum, MK, Posner, JB. Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. II. Clinical and immunologic findings in 21 patients with Hodgkin’s disease. Neurology 1992;42:1938–1943.Google Scholar
Probst, C, Komorowski, L, de Graaff, E, et al. Standardized test for anti-Tr/DNER in patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2015;2:e68.Google Scholar
Hoffmann, LA, Jarius, S, Pellkofer, HL, et al. Anti-Ma and anti-Ta associated paraneoplastic neurological syndromes: twenty-two newly diagnosed patients and review of previous cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008;79:767–773.Google Scholar
Bergner, CG, Lang, C, Spreer, A, et al. Teaching NeuroImages: Ma2 encephalitis presenting as acute panhypopituitarism in a young man. Neurology 2013;81:e146–147.Google Scholar
Murphy, SM, Khan, U, Alifrangis, C, et al. Anti Ma2-associated myeloradiculopathy: expanding the phenotype of anti-Ma2 associated paraneoplastic syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2012;83:232–233.Google Scholar
Ayrignac, X, Castelnovo, G, Landrault, E, et al. Ma2 antibody and multiple mononeuropathies. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2008;164:608–611.Google Scholar
Pang, SW, Lahiri, C, Poh, CL, Tan, KO. PNMA family: protein interaction network and cell signalling pathways implicated in cancer and apoptosis. Cell Signall 2018;45:54–62.Google Scholar
Lee, YH, Pang, SW, Tan, KO. PNMA2 mediates heterodimeric interactions and antagonizes chemo-sensitizing activities mediated by members of PNMA family. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016;473:224–229.Google Scholar
Chen, HL, D’Mello, SR. Induction of neuronal cell death by paraneoplastic Ma1 antigen. J Neurosci Res 2010;88:3508–3519.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, MR, Eichen, JG, Wade, DF, Posner, JB, Dalmau, J. Molecular and clinical diversity in paraneoplastic immunity to Ma proteins. Ann Neurol 2001;50:339–348.Google Scholar
Johannis, W, Renno, JH, Wielckens, K, Voltz, R. Ma2 antibodies: an evaluation of commercially available detection methods. Clin Lab 2011;57:321–326.Google Scholar
Titulaer, MJ, Klooster, R, Potman, M, et al. SOX antibodies in small-cell lung cancer and Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome: frequency and relation with survival. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:4260–4267.Google Scholar
Schepers, GE, Teasdale, RD, Koopman, P. Twenty pairs of sox: extent, homology, and nomenclature of the mouse and human sox transcription factor gene families. Dev Cell 2002;3:167–170.Google Scholar
Vural, B, Chen, LC, Saip, P, et al. Frequency of SOX Group B (SOX1, 2, 3) and ZIC2 antibodies in Turkish patients with small cell lung carcinoma and their correlation with clinical parameters. Cancer 2005;103:2575–2583.Google Scholar
Maddison, P, Titulaer, MJ, Verschuuren, JJ, et al. The utility of anti-SOX2 antibodies for cancer prediction in patients with paraneoplastic neurological disorders. J Neuroimmunol 2019;326:14–18.Google Scholar
Tschernatsch, M, Gross, O, Kneifel, N, Kaps, M, Blaes, F. SOX-1 autoantibodies in patients with paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Autoimmunity Reviews 2009;8:549–551.Google Scholar
Berger, B, Dersch, R, Ruthardt, E, et al. Prevalence of anti-SOX1 reactivity in various neurological disorders. J Neurol Sci 2016;369:342–346.Google Scholar
Sottile, V, Li, M, Scotting, PJ. Stem cell marker expression in the Bergmann glia population of the adult mouse brain. Brain Res 2006;1099:8–17.Google Scholar
Xu, YR, Yang, WX. SOX-mediated molecular crosstalk during the progression of tumorigenesis. Seminar Cell Dev Biol 2017;63:23–34.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Vincent, A, Pozo-Rosich, P, et al. Anti-glial nuclear antibody: marker of lung cancer-related paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. J Neuroimmunol 2005;165:166–171.Google Scholar
Dhanoa, BS, Cogliati, T, Satish, AG, Bruford, EA, Friedman, JS. Update on the Kelch-like (KLHL) gene family. Hum Genomics 2013;7:13.Google Scholar
Jitprapaikulsan, J, Klein, CJ, Pittock, SJ, et al. Phenotypic presentations of paraneoplastic neuropathies associated with MAP1B-IgG. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2020;91:328–330.Google Scholar
Tortosa, E, Montenegro-Venegas, C, Benoist, M, et al. Microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) is required for dendritic spine development and synaptic maturation. J Biol Chem 2011;286:40638–40648.Google Scholar
Chien, TM, Chan, TC, Huang, SK, et al. Role of microtubule-associated protein 1b in urothelial carcinoma: overexpression predicts poor prognosis. Cancers 2020;12;630.Google Scholar
Chan, KH, Vernino, S, Lennon, VA. ANNA-3 anti-neuronal nuclear antibody: marker of lung cancer-related autoimmunity. Ann Neurol 2001;50:301–311.Google Scholar
Bataller, L, Wade, DF, Graus, F, et al. Antibodies to Zic4 in paraneoplastic neurologic disorders and small-cell lung cancer. Neurology 2004;62:778–782.Google Scholar
Basal, E, Zalewski, N, Kryzer, TJ, et al. Paraneoplastic neuronal intermediate filament autoimmunity. Neurology 2018;91:e1677–e1689.Google Scholar
Zekeridou, A, Kryzer, T, Guo, Y, et al. Phosphodiesterase 10 A IgG: a novel biomarker of paraneoplastic neurologic autoimmunity. Neurology 2019;93:e815–e822.Google Scholar
Sabater, L, Gomez-Choco, M, Saiz, A, Graus, F. BR serine/threonine kinase 2: a new autoantigen in paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol 2005;170:186–190.Google Scholar
Popkirov, S, Ayzenberg, I, Hahn, S, et al. Rho-associated protein kinase 2 (ROCK2): a new target of autoimmunity in paraneoplastic encephalitis. Acta Neuropathologica Commun 2017;5:40.Google Scholar
Sabater, L, Bataller, L, Carpentier, AF, et al. Protein kinase Cgamma autoimmunity in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and non-small-cell lung cancer. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2006;77:1359–1362.Google Scholar
Tetsuka, S, Tominaga, K, Ohta, E, et al. Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration associated with an onconeural antibody against creatine kinase, brain-type. J Neurol Sci 2013;335:48–57.Google Scholar
Do, LD, Gupton, SL, Tanji, K, et al. TRIM9 and TRIM67 are new targets in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Cerebellum 2018;18:245–254.Google Scholar
van Coevorden-Hameete, MH, van Beuningen, SFB, Perrenoud, M, et al. Antibodies to TRIM46 are associated with paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2017;4:680–686.Google Scholar
Bataller, L, Sabater, L, Saiz, A, et al. Carbonic anhydrase-related protein VIII: autoantigen in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Ann Neurol 2004;56:575–579.Google Scholar
Hoftberger, R, Kovacs, GG, Sabater, L, et al. Protein kinase Cgamma antibodies and paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. J Neuroimmunol 2012;256:91–93.Google Scholar
Tschernatsch, M, Klotz, M, Probst, C, et al. Synaptophysin is an autoantigen in paraneoplastic neuropathy. J Neuroimmunol 2008;197:81–86.Google Scholar
Butler, MH, Hayashi, A, Ohkoshi, N, et al. Autoimmunity to gephyrin in Stiff-Man syndrome. Neuron 2000;26:307–312.Google Scholar
van Coevorden-Hameete, MH, de Graaff, E, Titulaer, MJ, et al. Plasticity-related gene 5: a novel surface autoantigen in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2015;2:e156.Google Scholar
Bataller, L, Wade, DF, Fuller, GN, Rosenfeld, MR, Dalmau, J. Cerebellar degeneration and autoimmunity to zinc-finger proteins of the cerebellum. Neurology 2002;59:1985–1987.Google Scholar
Sabater, L, Hoftberger, R, Boronat, A, et al. Antibody repertoire in paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and small cell lung cancer. PLoS One 2013;8:e60438.Google Scholar
Aydin, C, Celik, SY, Icoz, S, et al. Prognostic factors in anti-neuronal antibody positive patients. Noro psikiyatri arsivi 2018;55:189–194.Google Scholar
Eye, PG, Wang, B, Keung, ES, Tagg, NT. Anti-ZIC4 associated paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration in a patient with both diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and incidental smoldering multiple myeloma. J Neurol Sci 2018;384:36–37.Google Scholar
Kerasnoudis, A, Rockhoff, M, Federlein, J, Gold, R, Krogias, C. Isolated ZIC4 antibodies in paraneoplastic cerebellar syndrome with an underlying ovarian tumor. Arch Neurol 2011;68:1073.Google Scholar
Dechelotte, B, Muniz-Castrillo, S, Joubert, B, et al. Diagnostic yield of commercial immunodots to diagnose paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2020;7;e701.Google Scholar
Keltner, JL, Thirkill, CE, Yip, PT. Clinical and immunologic characteristics of melanoma-associated retinopathy syndrome: eleven new cases and a review of 51 previously published cases. J Neuroophthalmol 2001;21:173–187.Google Scholar
Grewal, DS, Fishman, GA, Jampol, LM. Autoimmune retinopathy and antiretinal antibodies: a review. Retina (Philadelphia, Pa) 2014;34:827–845.Google Scholar
Adamus, G. Are anti-retinal autoantibodies a cause or a consequence of retinal degeneration in autoimmune retinopathies? Front Immunol 2018;9:765.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, T, Holder, GE, Lee, RW, Plant, GT, Tufail, A. Diagnostic features of the autoimmune retinopathies. Autoimmun Rev 2014;13:534–538.Google Scholar
Fox, AR, Gordon, LK, Heckenlively, JR, et al. Consensus on the diagnosis and management of nonparaneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy using a modified Delphi approach. Am J Ophthalmol 2016;168:183–190.Google Scholar
Faez, S, Loewenstein, J, Sobrin, L. Concordance of antiretinal antibody testing results between laboratories in autoimmune retinopathy. JAMA Ophthalmol 2013;131:113–115.Google Scholar
Yang, S, Dizhoor, A, Wilson, DJ, Adamus, G. GCAP1, Rab6, and HSP27: novel autoantibody targets in cancer-associated retinopathy and autoimmune retinopathy. Transl Vision Sci Technol 2016;5:1.Google Scholar
Forooghian, F. The uncertainty regarding antiretinal antibodies. JAMA Ophthalmol 2015;133:744–745.Google Scholar
Adamus, G, Champaigne, R, Yang, S. Occurrence of major anti-retinal autoantibodies associated with paraneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy. Clin Immunol (Orlando, Fla) 2020;210:108317.Google Scholar
Adamus, G, Ren, G, Weleber, RG. Autoantibodies against retinal proteins in paraneoplastic and autoimmune retinopathy. BMC Ophthalmol 2004;4:5.Google Scholar
Bazhin, AV, Schadendorf, D, Philippov, PP, Eichmuller, SB. Recoverin as a cancer-retina antigen. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2007;56:110–116.Google Scholar
Gibbs, E, Matsubara, J, Cao, S, Cui, J, Forooghian, F. Antigen-specificity of antiretinal antibodies in patients with noninfectious uveitis. Can J Ophthalmol 2017;52:463–467.Google Scholar
Ten Berge, JC, van Rosmalen, J, Vermeer, J, et al. Serum autoantibody profiling of patients with paraneoplastic and non-paraneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy. PLoS One 2016;11:e0167909.Google Scholar
Bazhin, AV, Savchenko, MS, Shifrina, ON, et al. Recoverin as a paraneoplastic antigen in lung cancer: the occurrence of anti-recoverin autoantibodies in sera and recoverin in tumors. Lung Cancer 2004;44:193–198.Google Scholar
Gorodovikova, EN, Gimelbrant, AA, Senin, II, Philippov, PP. Recoverin mediates the calcium effect upon rhodopsin phosphorylation and cGMP hydrolysis in bovine retina rod cells. FEBS Lett 1994;349:187–190.Google Scholar
Adamus, G, Machnicki, M, Seigel, GM. Apoptotic retinal cell death induced by antirecoverin autoantibodies of cancer-associated retinopathy. Investig Ophthalmol Visual Sci 1997;38:283–291.Google Scholar
Shiraga, S, Adamus, G. Mechanism of CAR syndrome: anti-recoverin antibodies are the inducers of retinal cell apoptotic death via the caspase 9- and caspase 3-dependent pathway. J Neuroimmunol 2002;132:72–82.Google Scholar
Adamus, G, Machnicki, M, Elerding, H, et al. Antibodies to recoverin induce apoptosis of photoreceptor and bipolar cells in vivo. J Autoimmun 1998;11:523–533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doss, S, Numann, A, Ziegler, A, et al. Anti-Ca/anti-ARHGAP26 antibodies associated with cerebellar atrophy and cognitive decline. J Neuroimmunol 2014;267:102–104.Google Scholar
Pittock, SJ, Alfugham, N, O’Connor, K, et al. GTPase regulator associated with focal adhesion kinase 1 (GRAF1) immunoglobulin-associated ataxia and neuropathy. Mov Disord Clin Pract 2020;7:904–909.Google Scholar
Jarius, S, Scharf, M, Begemann, N, et al. Antibodies to the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 (ITPR1) in cerebellar ataxia. J Neuroinflammation 2014;11:206.Google Scholar
Alfugham, N, Gadoth, A, Lennon, VA, et al. ITPR1 autoimmunity: frequency, neurologic phenotype, and cancer association. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2018;5:e418.Google Scholar
Do, LD, Chanson, E, Desestret, V, et al. Characteristics in limbic encephalitis with anti-adenylate kinase 5 autoantibodies. Neurology 2017;88:514–524.Google Scholar
Miske, R, Gross, CC, Scharf, M, et al. Neurochondrin is a neuronal target antigen in autoimmune cerebellar degeneration. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2017;4:e307.Google Scholar
Shelly, S, Kryzer, TJ, Komorowski, L, et al. Neurochondrin neurological autoimmunity. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2019;6;e612.Google Scholar
Lancaster, E. CNS syndromes associated with antibodies against metabotropic receptors. Curr Opin Neurol 2017;30:354–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Honorat, JA, Lopez-Chiriboga, AS, Kryzer, TJ, et al. Autoimmune gait disturbance accompanying adaptor protein-3B2-IgG. Neurology 2019;93:e954–e963.Google Scholar
Honorat, JA, Lopez-Chiriboga, AS, Kryzer, TJ, et al. Autoimmune septin-5 cerebellar ataxia. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2018;5:e474.Google Scholar
Zuliani, L, Sabater, L, Saiz, A, et al. Homer 3 autoimmunity in subacute idiopathic cerebellar ataxia. Neurology 2007;68:239–240.Google Scholar
Piepgras, J, Holtje, M, Otto, C, et al. Intrathecal immunoglobulin A and G antibodies to synapsin in a patient with limbic encephalitis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2015;2:e169.Google Scholar
Darnell, RB, Furneaux, HM, Posner, JB. Antiserum from a patient with cerebellar degeneration identifies a novel protein in Purkinje cells, cortical neurons and neuroectodermal tumors. J Neurosci 1991;11:1224–1230.Google Scholar
McKeon, A, Tracy, JA. GAD65 neurological autoimmunity. Muscle Nerve 2017;56:15–27.Google Scholar
Graus, F, Saiz, A, Dalmau, J. GAD antibodies in neurological disorders: insights and challenges. Nat Rev Neurol 2020;16:353–365.Google Scholar
Bhandari, HS. Presentation of opsoclonus myoclonus ataxia syndrome with glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies. BMJ Case Rep 2012;2012:bcr2012006339.Google Scholar
Martins, AI, Carvalho, JN, Amorim, AM, et al. Disabling central paroxysmal positioning upbeat nystagmus and vertigo associated with the presence of anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies. J Neuroophthalmol 2018;38:32–35.Google Scholar
Vianello, M, Morello, F, Scaravilli, T, Tavolato, B, Giometto, B. Tremor of the mouth floor and anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies. Eur J Neurol 2003;10:513–514.Google Scholar
Macaron, G, Willis, MA, Ontaneda, D, et al. Palatal myoclonus, abnormal eye movements, and olivary hypertrophy in GAD65-related disorder. Neurology 2020;94:273–275.Google Scholar
Ellis, TM, Atkinson, MA. The clinical significance of an autoimmune response against glutamic acid decarboxylase. Nat Med 1996;2:148–153.Google Scholar
Erlander, MG, Tobin, AJ. The structural and functional heterogeneity of glutamic acid decarboxylase: a review. Neurochem Res 1991;16:215–226.Google Scholar
Kaufman, DL, Houser, CR, Tobin, AJ. Two forms of the gamma-aminobutyric acid synthetic enzyme glutamate decarboxylase have distinct intraneuronal distributions and cofactor interactions. J Neurochem 1991;56:720–723.Google Scholar
Gresa-Arribas, N, Arino, H, Martinez-Hernandez, E, et al. Antibodies to inhibitory synaptic proteins in neurological syndromes associated with glutamic acid decarboxylase autoimmunity. PLoS One 2015;10:e0121364.Google Scholar
Burbelo, PD, Groot, S, Dalakas, MC, Iadarola, MJ. High definition profiling of autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylases GAD65/GAD67 in stiff-person syndrome. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008;366:1–7.Google Scholar
Dinkel, K, Meinck, HM, Jury, KM, Karges, W, Richter, W. Inhibition of gamma-aminobutyric acid synthesis by glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies in stiff-man syndrome. Ann Neurol 1998;44:194–201.Google Scholar
Dalakas, MC, Li, M, Fujii, M, Jacobowitz, DM. Stiff person syndrome: quantification, specificity, and intrathecal synthesis of GAD65 antibodies. Neurology 2001;57:780–784.Google Scholar
Meinck, HM, Faber, L, Morgenthaler, N, et al. Antibodies against glutamic acid decarboxylase: prevalence in neurological diseases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001;71:100–103.Google Scholar
Saiz, A, Blanco, Y, Sabater, L, et al. Spectrum of neurological syndromes associated with glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies: diagnostic clues for this association. Brain 2008;131:2553–2563.Google Scholar
Flanagan, EP, Hinson, SR, Lennon, VA, et al. Glial fibrillary acidic protein immunoglobulin G as biomarker of autoimmune astrocytopathy: analysis of 102 patients. Ann Neurol 2017;81:298–309.Google Scholar
Kunchok, A, Zekeridou, A, McKeon, A. Autoimmune glial fibrillary acidic protein astrocytopathy. Curr Opin Neurol 2019;32:452–458.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×