When an Englishman, George Leigh Mallory, was repeatedly asked in 1923, during a lecture tour in America, why he wanted to climb Mount Everest, he replied, simply “Because it is there”. In the course of a recent workshop on the phenomenon of Antarctic sub-glacial lakes, best exemplified by the largest known lake which lies under the Russian Vostok station, a similar question was hovering in the air. “Why drill through to the lake?”; one could sense the wish that it would be sufficient, simply to give the “Mallory” answer. Mallory's reply carries with it the feeling of a “put down,” as if he were saying that he wanted no more questions about his motives for engaging in a venture which needed no further justification. Similarly, many scientists would be tempted to answer with the same asperity. “Don't question our motives- this is an experiment. We will build hypotheses about what we are likely to find, and then test them by drilling through; but the ultimate justification lies in the fact that Lake Vostok, is there, and is a proper object of human enquiry”.

Dissostichus eleginoides spawn over the continental slope from June to September. The eggs, 4.3–4.7 mm diameter, were found in the upper 500 m of the water column over waters 2200–4400 m deep. Incubation of eggs is likely to take about three months. Hatching is probably in October/November. Embryos in egg development stages III and IV are described. Scales are not present until the fish are about 64–74 mm long.

Seventy-three sponge species were caught at 23 stations on the continental shelf of the Lazarev and Weddell Sea (Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean). Tedania tantula was the most often found species amongst the 63 demosponge species caught and among the five hexactinellid species Rossella racovitzae was most common. The stations were classified according to their species inventory, and so the individual stations of the resulting four groups were rather uniformly dispersed over the entire investigation area. The species composition of adjacent stations varied considerably. There was no discernible relationship between the biological set of data and any combination of the available environmental characteristics of the stations. The sponge fauna of the, so far very poorly investigated, Lazarev Sea did not differ considerably from that of the adjacent Weddell Sea. The only species to be recorded for the first time on the Antarctic continental shelf were Homaxinella flagelliformis and Hyrtios arenosa. Small scale environmental events such as iceberg scouring, or biological characteristics such as extremely slow growth and budding reproduction are thought to generate the patchy distribution pattern.

Population fecundity and reproductive habits in Patagonotothen tessellata were established for each reproductive period during 1988 and 1989. Fecundity/total length and fecundity/total weight relationships were analysed through regression models. Fecundity was positively correlated with fish length and weight. Mean fecundity was 25932 eggs (range 7634–62033). The regressions for each reproductive period are similar, suggesting that the amount of energy allocated to reproduction does not vary between spawning periods. Parental behaviour is described from both field and laboratory observations. Nesting and parental care were carried out by P. tessellata males. The life history strategy of this species is discussed in relation to that of other nototheniid species.

The diet of mainly adult and sub-adult male Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) was investigated during the austral winters of 1992 and 1993 using faecal (scat) analysis. Of samples containing identifiable prey remains (n = 376), c. 28% contained krill alone, c. 37% contained fish alone and c. 35% contained both krill and fish. The mean size of krill taken was smaller than in summer due to the absence of large adult krill of 55–60 mm total length. Of the 25 fish taxa taken, krill-feeding species predominated, especially in scats that also contained krill. Non-krill feeding species were more abundant in scats containing fish alone. The mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari Lönnberg 1905), which feeds mainly on krill, was the most important fish species in terms of absolute frequency (53%), frequency of occurrence (69%) and estimated biomass (47%); fur seals may have a significant impact on local stocks of this species. Cephalopods and pelagic fish (myctophids) were of minor importance in the diet (<2%). The importance of krill and krill-feeding fish species suggests that the male fur seals, which are present around South Georgia in winter, are targeting their foraging on a krill and fish community, probably associated with krill aggregations.

Photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), air relative humidity and thallus temperature (TT) were measured in Usnea antarctica over a period of 12 months at a coastal rock on King George Island, South Shetland Islands. TT had an annual amplitude of c. 54 K with the maximum of +27.4°C recorded in December and minimum of −27.3°C in July. Daily maximum TT exceeded 0°C every month except in June and July when they were below −0.4°C and −1.6°C, respectively. Daily minimum temperatures were always below zero. Diel courses of PPFD showed pronounced seasonal differences between summer (more than 2000 μmol m−2s−1) and winter (less than 50 μmol m−2s−1 in July). Daily sum of PPFD was highest (more than 30 mol m−2d−1) in December and lowest (0.1 mol m−2d−1) in July. A photosynthesis model was used to estimate the potential annual primary production from habitat PPFD and TT. The estimated potential annual carbon balance of U. antarctica was 323 mg CO2 g−1 dry weight y−1 assuming that the lichen was always at optimal moisture. The potential carbon balance indicates that primary production is severely limited by low PPFD and subzero TT in the austral winter. Nevertheless, the PPFD and TT would allow metabolic activity during winter but with a negative carbon balance during May–August. Spring and autumnal months are revealed as probably the most important periods for lichen primary production because PPFD exceeds photosynthetic light compensation point during the daytime and ambient moisture conditions frequently favour a positive carbon balance.

The lichen and moss collections by G.T. Bowra in Heimefrontfjella in 1963–64 are redetermined. These are the only plant collections made in Heimefrontfjella prior to a Swedish expedition in 1991–92. Taxonomical and nomenclatural improvements have resulted in several changes. A total of 16 lichens and two mosses were found.

Rb-Sr ages of Swanson Formation on Edward VII Peninsula, West Antarctica, indicate a late Ordovician age, 421–432 Ma for regional metamorphism. K-Ar ages of 113–440 Ma, reflect a second thermal metamorphism during emplacement of widespread Cretaceous granites. Rb-Sr ages of five monzogranite/syenogranitic plutons of Byrd Coast Granite are in the range 95–105 Ma (initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios 0.710–0.715) and represent stages of crystallization of anorogenic granite (A subtype). These correlate with Byrd Coast Granite (100–110 Ma) farther east in Marie Byrd Land, and with Cretaceous granitoids on the Campbell Plateau and in southern New Zealand. K-Ar mica/hornblende and fission-track apatite/zircon ages indicate that regional cooling began c. 90–100 M.y. ago immediately after granite emplacement. Uplift continued throughout the peninsula during the period 55–100 Ma (late Cretaceous-early Tertiary), associated with regional uplift in the rift-drift stages of Gondwana break-up at the South-west Pacific spreading centre. Apatite fission track ages show that during late Cretaceous-early Tertiary time the peninsula behaved as two blocks. The Alexandra Mountains were exhumed 20 m.y. before the Rockefeller Mountains and are possibly separated by a fault active initially in the mid-Cretaceous or earlier, and later reactivated in the late Cretaceous-early Tertiary. An averaged uplift rate (50–100 Ma) of 0.025 mm yr−1 is characteristic of the inferred intraplate tectonic setting.

A new xanthid crab, Tumidocarcinus foersteri n. sp. is described from the La Meseta Formation on Seymour Island, Antarctica. The fossils were obtained from the Allomember Submeseta of Late Eocene age. As other representatives of the genus Tumidocarcinus were only known from New Zealand and Australia, this finding provides new insights on the palaeobiogeography of high latitude faunas during the Early Tertiary.

The poly-deformed Priestley schist (Wilson Terrane) of north Victoria Land, Antarctica ranges in metamorphic grade from lower greenschist facies to upper amphibolite facies. All grades of schist have been affected by structurally controlled retrogressive H2O-CO2 fluids with 45–70 mole % CO2. The fluids have deposited quartz-carbonate veins with pyrite and chlorite or biotite in late stage structures. Veins typically constitute < 1% of the rock mass, but in one greenschist facies area > 10% of the rock is vein. Veins in higher grade schists have been boudinaged after formation, and many have been annealed. Primary fluid inclusions are preserved in veins in biotite zone schists in two localities. At one locality, entrapment of immiscible fluids (water with c. 8 and 45 mole % CO2) occurred during vein formation, at about 280–300°C and 700 ± 200 bars fluid pressure. The aqueous fluid is slightly saline (4 wt % NaCl equivalent). At the other primary fluid inclusion locality, veins were formed from a single phase fluid (c. 70 mole % CO2) at 200–350°C and 1600 ± 500 bars fluid pressure. Both these vein systems are inferred to have formed between 2 and 8 km depth, near the brittle-ductile transition. Retrogressive fluid mobility and vein formation occurred throughout schist in the Priestly metamorphic complex during uplift in the latter part of the Ross Orogeny (c. 490 Ma), following near-isobaric cooling at metamorphic depths.

The Devonian, Pivot Coal Measures in southern Victoria Land are non-carbonaceous. The sequence contains bedding parallel, titaniferous ironstones up to 50 cm thick, but no coal or carbonaceous shale, the unit is consequently renamed Pivot Member of the Arena Sandstone. The more Fe-Ti oxide-rich (up to 40 modal %) beds appear black and coal-like with conchoidal fracture and closely spaced cleat-like fractures. The coal-like beds grade laterally and vertically into less altered sedimentary rocks in which fine bedding-parallel concentrations of Fe-Ti oxide pick-out parting surfaces on ripples and other sedimentary structures. Thin section petrography shows that the Fe-Ti oxide is replacive, and outcrop relationships show that the replacement was related to dolerite intrusion 200 million years after the sedimentary host was deposited. Replacement of muscovite, biotite and chlorite by Fe-Ti-oxide occurred at 179 ± 3 Ma, at pressures of 0.3–0.4 kbar and at temperatures as low as 380°C.

Recently Ricci et al. (1993) proposed a series of general guidelines for the naming of igneous and metamorphic rocks in Antarctica, based on discussions held by the SCAR Working Group on Geology. Ricci et al. (1993) suggested that names for igneous and metamorphic rock units should comprise an appropriate geographic name and simple lithological field term. However, they also suggest that names should not include terms that indicate the form or structure of a rock unit, such as dyke, pluton or batholith.

Infrared satellite images of the coastal area off Adélie Land were examined together with two wind data sets, one from the manned French station, Dumont d'Urville, the other one from an Automatic Weather Station (AWS) during the 1986 austral winter. A correlation between the development of open water areas (polynyas) and the appearance of extremely strong offshore winds can be drawn. The wind direction tended to be more perpendicular to the coastline during these extreme ‘events’, suggesting a katabatic origin of the increase in wind strength. In the study area the influence of the katabatic wind on the sea ice extends 20–100 km offshore. Sea ice motion further off the coast seems to be more dominated by synoptic scale weather systems. Broader scale atmospheric influences may create large polynya structures which influence the development of coastal winds, as the temperature contrast between open water and the cold continent generates its own circulation. Strong wind events can have a weakening effect on the coastal sea ice which can lead to a much more sensitive reaction of the sea ice in response to following anomalous wind events.

Meteorological measurements performed during the austral summer of 1990–91 are used to evaluate the surface energy balance and ablation at an elevation of 100 m asl on the Ecology Glacier, which is an outlet glacier of the main ice cap of King George Island, Antarctica. Strong, gusty westerly winds prevail, although occasional south-easterly winds from the Weddell Sea reach the island. Generally, the climate can be characterized as relatively warm and humid with mean summer temperatures well above 0°C. As a result, considerable ablation (0.75 m water equivalent per month) takes place in the lower parts of the Ecology Glacier. The surface energy balance and ablation are calculated using a model with input from meteorological data. In spite of the large amount of cloud (0.83), solar radiation provided most of the energy used for melting (70.3 W m−2). The longwave radiation, sensible heat flux and latent heat flux contributed −9.5, 27.4 and 7.4 W m−2 respectively. Calculations show that a temperature rise of 1°C increases the ablation by almost 15%. This indicates that the ice caps and glaciers currently present on the subantarctic islands and the Antarctic Peninsula may be quite sensitive to climate change.

The synoptic origins of precipitation on the western side of the Antarctic Peninsula over the one year period March 1992 to February 1993 are investigated using meteorological observations, satellite imagery and analyses produced by the UK Meteorological Office. Precipitation at Rothera Station was found to occur at 30% of the synoptic reporting time with 80% of precipitation reports being associated with cyclonic disturbances. Although three quarters of all precipitation reports were for snow, the proximity of Rothera to the zone of maximum cyclonic activity meant that incursions of mild air produced rain in all seasons. During the year 95% of all precipitation was classed as slight. Variability of precipitation on the intraseasonal timescale was highly dependent on the synoptic-scale circulation. The most common synoptic situation for precipitation was a frontal cyclone over the Bellingshausen Sea which accounted for 38% of all precipitation events and 62% of the moderate and heavy precipitation reports. Of the extra-tropical cyclones that gave precipitation 49% were found to have developed south of 60°S. None of the precipitation at Rothera was attributable to mesocyclones. Snow stake measurements from Rothera were a poor indicator of precipitation as a result of blowing snow.