Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T08:02:14.811Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Sex, Coalitions, and Politics in Preindustrial Societies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2016

Bobbi S. Low*
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
Get access

Abstract

Broadly defined, political activity normally involves some form of coalition, usually centering upon resource acquisition, and is not restricted to humans. Male and female mammals appear to have evolved to seek and use resources differently—males to get mates (mating effort) and females to raise healthy, successful offspring (parental effort). Because the return curves for these two types of effort differ in shape, several predictions follow about sex differences in political activity. These predictions are tested using the 93 odd-numbered societies of the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample. Results offer insights into current patterns of male and female political activity in Western societies.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Politics and the Life Sciences 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, R.D., Hoogland, J.L., Howard, R.D., Noonan, K.M., and Sherman, P.W.(1979). “Sexual Dimorphism and Breeding Systems in Pinnipeds, Ungulates, Primates, and Humans.” In Chagnon, N.A.and Irons, W., eds. Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.Google Scholar
Barkow, J.H.(1977). “Conformity to Ethos and Reproductive Success in Two Hausa Communities: An Empirical Evaluation.” Ethos 5:409425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beattie, J.H.M.(1960). Bunyoro: An African Kingdom. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Beattie, J.H.M.(1963). “Aspects of Nyoro Symbolism.” Africa 38:413442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betzig, L.L.(1986). Despotism and Differential Reproduction: A Darwinian View of History. New York: Aldine.Google Scholar
Borgerhoff Mulder, M.(1987). “On Cultural and Biological Success: Kipsigis Evidence.” American Anthropologist 89:617634.Google Scholar
Borgerhoff Mulder, M.(1988). “Kipsigis Bridewealth Payments.” In Betzig, L. L., Borgerhoff Mulder, M., and Turke, P., eds. Human Reproductive Behavior: A Darwinian Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bygott, D.(1974). Agonistic Behavior and Dominance in Wild Chimpanzees. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Bygott, J.D., Bertram, B.C.R., and Hanby, J.P.(1979). “Male Lions in Large Coalitions Gain Reproductive Advantages.” Nature 282:839841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cain, M.(1985). “On the Relationship Between Landholding and Fertility.” Population Studies 39:515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carcopino, J.(1941). Daily Life in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge and Sons.Google Scholar
Chagnon, N.(1982). “Sociodemographic Attributes of Nepotism in Tribal Populations: Man the Rulebreaker.” In King's College Sociobiology Group, eds. Current Problems in Sociobiology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chagnon, N.(1988). “Life Histories, Blood Revenge, and Warfare in a Tribal Population.” Science 239:985992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charlton, S.E.M.(1984). Women in Third World Development. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Childs, G.M.(1949). Umbundu Kinship and Character. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T.H., Albon, S.D., and Guinness, F.E.(1986). “Great Expectations: Dominance, Breeding Success and Offspring Sex Ratios in Red Deer.” Animal Behaviour 34:460471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T.H., Guinness, F.E., and Albon, S.D.(1982). Red Deer: The Ecology of Two Sexes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T.H.and Harvey, P.H.(1978). “Mammals, Resources, and Reproductive Strategies.” Nature 273:191195.Google Scholar
Colwell, R.K.(1974). “Predictability, Constancy, and Contingency of Periodic Phenomena.” Ecology 55:11481153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowlishaw, G.and Dunbar, R.I.(1991). “Dominance Rank and Mating Success in Male Primates.” Animal Behaviour 41:10451056.Google Scholar
Cronk, L.(1991). “Wealth, Status, and Reproductive Success Among the Mukogodo of Kenya.” American Anthropologist 93:345360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, M.and Wilson, M.(1983). Sex, Evolution, and Behavior. 2nd ed.Boston: Willard Grant.Google Scholar
Deardon, J.(1974). “Sex-linked Differences of Political Behavior: An Investigation of Their Possibly Innate Origins.” Social Science Information 13:1945.Google Scholar
Dewsbury, D.A.(1982). “Dominance Rank, Copulatory Behavior, and Differential Reproduction.” Quarterly Review of Biology 57:135159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, R.I.M.and Dunbar, E.P.(1977). “Dominance and Reproductive Success Among Female Gelada Baboons.” Nature 266:351352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emlen, S.T.and Oring, L.W.(1977). “Ecology, Sexual Selection and the Evolution of Mating Systems.” Science 197:210250.Google Scholar
Essock-Vitale, S.(1984). “The Reproductive Success of Wealthy Americans.” Ethology and Sociobiology 5:4549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Essock-Vitale, S.and McGuire, M.T.(1988). “What 70 Million Years Hath Wrought: Sexual Histories and Reproductive Success of a Random Sample of American Women.” In Betzig, L. L., Borgerhoff Mulder, M., and Turke, P., eds. Human Reproductive Behavior: A Darwinian Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fadiman, J.A.(1982). An Oral History of Tribal Warfare: The Meru of Mt. Kenya. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Falconer, D.S.(1961). Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. New York: Ronald Press.Google Scholar
Farran, C.(1963). Matrimonial Laws of the Sudan. London: Buttersworth.Google Scholar
Faux, S.F.and Miller, H.L.(1984). “Evolutionary Speculations on the Oligarchic Development of Mormon Polygyny.” Ethology and Sociobiology 5:1531.Google Scholar
Fedigan, L.M.(1983). “Dominance and Reproductive Success in Primates.” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 26:91129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flinn, M.V.(1986). “Correlates of Reproductive Success in a Caribbean Village.” Human Ecology 14:225243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flinn, M.V.and Low, B.S.(1986). “Resource Distribution, Social Competition, and Mating Patterns in Human Societies.” In Rubenstein, D.and Wrangham, R., eds. Ecological Aspects of Social Behavior. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Friedlander, L.([1907] 1979). Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire. Vol I. Second ed.New York: Arno Press.Google Scholar
Galloway, P.R.(1986). “Differentials in Demographic Responses to Annual Price Variations in Pre-Revolutionary France: A Comparison of Rich and Poor Areas in Rouen, 1681-1787.” European Journal of Population 2:269305.Google Scholar
Gardner, J.F.(1986). Women in Roman Law and Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Gewertz, D.(1981). “A Historical Reconstruction of Female Dominance Among the Chambri of Papua New Guinea.” American Ethnologist 8:94106.Google Scholar
Gewertz, D.(1983). Sepik River Societies: A Historical Ethnography of the Chambri and Their Neighbors. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Gewertz, D.and Errington, F. K.(1991). Twisted Histories, Altered Contexts: Representing the Chambri in a World System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goodale, J.C.(1971). Tiwi Wives. Seattle: University Washington Press.Google Scholar
Goodall, J.(1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Greenwood, P.J.(1980). “Mating Systems, Philopatry, and Dispersal in Birds and Mammals.” Animal Behaviour 28:11401162.Google Scholar
Hallett, J.P.(1984). Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Halperin, S.(1979). “Temporary Association Patterns in Free Ranging Chimpanzees.” In Hamburg, D.and McCown, E., eds. The Great Apes. Menlo Park: Benjamin Cummings.Google Scholar
Hart, C.W.and Pilling, A.R.(1960). The Tiwi of North Australia. New York: Holt.Google Scholar
Hartung, J.(1982). “Polygyny and Inheritance of Wealth.” Current Anthropology 23:112.Google Scholar
Hayami, A.(1980). “Class Differences in Marriage and Fertility Among Tokugawa Villagers in Mino Province.” Keio Economic Studies 17:116.Google Scholar
Hershkovits, M.J.and Hershkovits, F.S.(1934). Rebel Destiny. Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press.Google Scholar
Hill, J.(1984). “Prestige and Reproductive Success in Man.” Ethology and Sociobiology 5:7795.Google Scholar
Hill, K.and Kaplan, H.(1988). “Tradeoffs in Male and Female Reproductive Strategies Among the Ache: Part 1.” In Betzig, L., Borgerhoff Mulder, M., and Turke, P., eds. Human Reproductive Behaviour: A Darwinian Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hughes, A.(1986). “Reproductive Success and Occupational Class in Eighteenth-Century Lancashire, England.” Social Biology 33:109115.Google Scholar
Irons, W.(1979a). “Cultural and Biological Success.” In Chagnon, N.A.and Irons, W., eds. Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.Google Scholar
Irons, W.(1979b). “Investment and Primary Social Dyads.” In Chagnon, N.A.and Irons, W., eds. Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.Google Scholar
Irons, W.(1983). “Human Female Reproductive Strategies.” In Wasser, Samuel K., ed. Social Behavior of Female Vertebrates. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kaplan, H.and Hill, K.. (1985). “Hunting Ability and Reproductive Success Among Male Ache Foragers: Preliminary Results.” Current Anthropology 26:131133.Google Scholar
Krebs, J.R.and Davies, N.B.(1991). Behavioral Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach. 3rd ed.Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.Google Scholar
Leacock, E.(1955). “Matrilocality in a Simple Hunting Economy.” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 11:3147.Google Scholar
Le Boeuf, B. and Reiter, J.(1988). “Lifetime Reproductive Success in Northern Elephant Seals.” In Clutton-Brock, T.H., ed. Reproductive Success: Studies of Individual Variation in Contrasting Breeding Systems. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lee, R.(1979). “Politics, Sexual and Non-Sexual, in an Egalitarian Society.” In Leacock, E.and Lee, R., eds. Politics and History in Band Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Le Vine, R.A.(1958). Social Control and Socialization among the Gusii. Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Linton, R.(1939). “Marquesan Culture and Analysis of Marquesan Culture.” In Kardiner, A., ed. The Individual and His Society. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Lips, J.E.(1947). “Naskapi Law.” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 37:379491.Google Scholar
Low, B.S.(1978). “Environmental Uncertainty and the Parental Strategies of Marsupials and Placentals.” American Naturalist 112:197213.Google Scholar
Low, B.S.(1988). “Measures of Polygyny in Humans.” Current Anthropology 29:189194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Low, B.S.(1989a). “Cross-Cultural Patterns in the Training of Children: An Evolutionary Perspective.” Journal of Comparative Psychology 103:311319.Google Scholar
Low, B.S.(1989b). “Occupational Status and Reproductive Behavior in 19th Century Sweden: Locknevi Parish.” Social Biology 36:82101.Google Scholar
Low, B.S.(1990a). “Human Responses to Environmental Extremeness and Uncertainty: A Cross-Cultural Perspective.” In Cashdan, E., ed. Risk and Uncertainty in Tribal and Peasant Economies. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Low, B.S.(1990b). “Occupational Status, Land Ownership, and Reproductive Behavior in 19th Century Sweden: Tuna Parish.” American Anthropologist 92:115126.Google Scholar
Low, B.S.(1990c). “Sex, Power, and Resources: Ecological and Social Correlates of Sex Differences.” International Journal of Contemporary Sociology 27:4571.Google Scholar
Low, B.S.(in press). “An Evolutionary Perspective on Lethal Conflict.” In Jacobson, H.and Zimmerman, W., eds. New Thinking in a New Age of Security. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Low, B.S.and Clarke, A.L.(1991). “Occupational Status, Land Ownership, Migration, and Family Patterns in 19th Century Sweden.” Journal of Family History 16:117138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Low, B.S.and Clarke, A.L.(in press a). “Historical Perspectives on Population and Environment: Data from 19th Century Sweden.” In Ness, G., Drake, W., and Brechen, S., eds. Population-Environment Dynamics: Ideas and Observations. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Low, B.S.and Clarke, A.L.(in press b). “Resources and the Life Course: Patterns in the Demographic Transition.” Ethology and Sociobiology.Google Scholar
MacArthur, R.H.and Wilson, E.O.(1967). The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Masters, R.D.(1989). “Gender and Political Cognition: Integrating Evolutionary Biology and Political Science.” Politics and the Life Sciences 8:326.Google Scholar
McCullough, M.(1952). “The Ovimbundu of Angola.” In Forde, D., ed. Ethnographic Survey of Africa: West Central Africa, Part II.Google Scholar
McInnis, R.M.(1977). “Childbearing and Land Availability: Some Evidence From Individual Household Data.” In Lee, R., ed. Population Patterns in the Past. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mead, M.(1935). Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies. New York: William Murrow.Google Scholar
Mealey, L.(1985). “The Relationship Between Social Status and Biological Success: A Case Study of the Mormon Religious Hierarchy.” Ethology and Sociobiology 6:249257.Google Scholar
Mitterauer, M.and Sieder, R.(1982). The European Family. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Mueller, U.(1991). “Social and Reproductive Success. Theoretical Considerations and a Case Study of the West Point Class of 1950.” ZUMA: Zentrum für Umfragen, Methoden und Analysen.Google Scholar
Murdock, G.P.(1967). Ethnographic Atlas. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Murdock, G.P.(1981). Atlas of World Cultures. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Murdock, G.P.and White, D.(1969). “Standard Cross-Cultural Sample.” Ethnology 8:329369.Google Scholar
Murdock, G.P.and Wilson, S.(1972). “Settlement Patterns and Community Organization: Cross-Cultural Codes 3.” Ethnology 11:254295.Google Scholar
Nishida, T.(1979). “The Social Structure of Chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains.” In Hamburg, D.and McCown, E., eds. The Great Apes. Menlo Park: Benjamin Cummings.Google Scholar
O'Brien, D.(1977). “Female Husbands in Southern Bantu Society.” In Schlegel, A., ed. Sexual Stratification: A Cross-Cultural View. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Paige, K.E.and Paige, J. M.(1981). The Politics of Reproductive Ritual. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Pellison, M.(1897). Roman Life in Pliny's Time. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs.Google Scholar
Pérusse, D.(1991). “Cultural and Reproductive Success in Industrial Societies: Testing the Relationship at Proximate and Ultimate Levels.” Presented at the 1991 Annual Meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, Hamilton, Ontario.Google Scholar
Pfister, U.(1989a). “Proto-Industrialization and Demographic Change: The Canton of Zurich Revisited.” Journal of Economic History 18:629–62.Google Scholar
Pfister, U.(1989b). “Work Roles and Family Structure in Proto-Industrial Zurich.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 20:83105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pusey, A.E.and Packer, C.(1987). “Dispersal and Philopatry.” In Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D.L., Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W., and Strusaker, T.T., eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Rank, M.A.(1989). “Fertility Among Women on Welfare: Incidence and Determinants.” American Sociological Review 54:296304.Google Scholar
Rattray, R.S.(1923). Ashanti. New York: Negro Universities Press.Google Scholar
Richards, A.I.(1951). “The Bemba of North-Eastern Rhodesia.” In Colson, E.and Gluckman, M., eds. Seven Tribes of Central Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Roscoe, J.(1923). The Bakitara or Banyoro; The First Part of the Report to the Mackie Ethnological Expedition to Central Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rowell, T.E.(1988). “Beyond the One-Male Group.” Behaviour 104:189210.Google Scholar
Schapera, I.(1930). The Khoisan Peoples of South Africa. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Schultz, T.P.(1982). “Family Composition and Income Inequality.” Yale University Economic Growth Center Paper #25.Google Scholar
Schultz, T.P.(1985). “Changing World Prices, Women's Wages, and the Fertility Transition: Sweden, 1860-1910.” Journal of Political Economy 93:11261154.Google Scholar
Sharpe, P.(1990). “The Total Reconstitution Method: A Tool for Class-Specific Study?” Local Population Studies 44:4151.Google Scholar
Silk, J.B.(1987). “Social Behavior in Evolutionary Perspective.” In Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D.L., Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W., and Strusaker, T.T., eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Silk, J.and Boyd, R.(1983). “Cooperation, Competition, and Mate Choice in Matrilineal Macaque Groups.” In Wasser, S.K., ed. Social Behavior of Female Vertebrates. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Smuts, B.B.(1985). Sex and Friendship in Baboons. New York: Aldine.Google Scholar
Smuts, B.B.(1987a). “Gender, Aggression, and Influence.” In Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D.L., Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W., and Strusaker, T.T., eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Smuts, B.B.(1987b). “Sexual Competition and Mate Choice.” In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D.L., Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W., and Strusaker, T.T., eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Speck, F.G.(1931). “Montagnais-Naskapi Bands and Early Eskimo Distribution in the Labrador Peninsula.” American Anthropologist 33:557600.Google Scholar
Stewart, K.J.and Harcourt, A.H.(1987). “Gorillas: Variation in Female Relationships.” In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D.L., Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W., and Strusaker, T.T., eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Strong, W.D.(1929). “Cross-Cousin Marriage and the Culture of the Northeastern Algonkian.” American Anthropologist 31:277.Google Scholar
Swanton, J.R.(1928a). “Aboriginal Culture of the Southeast.” Forty-Second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology:673727.Google Scholar
Swanton, J.R.(1928b). “Social Organization and Social Usages of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy.” Forty-Second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology:23473.Google Scholar
Symons, J.(1974). The Effects of Income on Fertility. Carolina Population Center Monograph #19. Chapel Hill, NC.Google Scholar
Thomas, D.S.(1941). Social and Economic Aspects of Swedish Population Movements: 1750-1933. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Thompson, J.and Britton, M.(1980). “Some Socioeconomic Differentials in Fertility in England and Wales.” In Hiorus, R.W., ed. Demographic Patterns in Developed Societies. London: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Trivers, R.(1972). “Parental Investment and Sexual Selection.” In Campbell, B., ed. Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man. Chicago: Aldine.Google Scholar
Trivers, R.(1985). Social Evolution. Menlo Park: Benjamin Cummings.Google Scholar
Tuden, A.and Marshall, C.(1972). “Political Organization: Cross-Cultural Codes 4.” Ethnology 11:436464.Google Scholar
Turke, P.W.(1989). “Evolution and the Demand for Children.” Population and Development Review 15:6190.Google Scholar
Turke, P.W.(1990). “Which Humans Behave Adaptively, and Why Does it Matter?” Ethology and Sociobiology 11:305339.Google Scholar
Turke, P.W.and Betzig, L.(1985). “Those Who Can Do: Wealth, Status, and Reproductive Success on Ifaluk.” Ethology and Sociobiology 6:7987.Google Scholar
Vining, D.(1986). “Social Versus Reproductive Success: The Central Problem of Human Sociobiology.” The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:167216.Google Scholar
Voland, E.(1990). “Differential Reproductive Success Within the Krummhörn Population (Germany, 18th and 19th Centuries).” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 26:6572.Google Scholar
de Waal, F.(1982). Chimpanzee Politics. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
de Waal, F.(1984). “Sex Differences in the Formation of Coalitions Among Chimpanzees.” Ethology and Sociobiology 5:239255.Google Scholar
de Waal, F.(1986). “The Integration of Dominance and Social Bonding in Primates.” Quarterly Review of Biology 61:459479.Google Scholar
de Waal, F.(1989). Peacemaking Among Primates. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wall, R.(1934). “Real Property, Marriage, and Children: The Evidence From Four Pre-Industrial Communities.” In Smith, R.M., ed. Land, Kinship, and the Life-Cycle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wasser, S.K.(1983). “Reproductive Competition and Cooperation Among Female Yellow Baboons.” In Wasser, S.K., ed. Social Behavior of Female Vertebrates. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Whyte, M.K.(1978). “Cross-Cultural Codes Dealing with the Relative Status of Women.” Ethnology 17:211237.Google Scholar
Whyte, M.K.(1979). The Status of Women in Preindustrial Societies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R.(1979). “Sex Differences in Chimpanzee Dispersion.” In Hamburg, D.and McCown, E., eds. The Great Apes. Menlo Park: Benjamin Cummings.Google Scholar
Wrigley, E.A.(1983a). “The Growth of Population in Eighteenth-Century England: A Conundrum Resolved.” Past and Present 98:121150.Google Scholar
Wrigley, E.A.(1983b). “Malthus's Model of a Pre-Industrial Economy.” In Dupâquier, J., Fauve-Chamoux, A., and Grebenik, E., eds. Malthus Past and Present. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Wrong, D.(1980). Class Fertility Trends in Western Nations. Salem, NH: Ayer Press.Google Scholar
Wrong, D.(1985). “Trends in Class Fertility in Western Nations.” Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 24:216219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar