Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T12:12:55.641Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

BWC Verification Measures: Technologies for the Identification of Biological Warfare Agents

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2016

Richard W. Titball
Affiliation:
Chemical and Biological Defence Establishment, United Kingdom
Graham S. Pearson
Affiliation:
Chemical and Biological Defence Establishment, United Kingdom
Get access

Abstract

The future effectiveness of the 1972 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) will be dependent largely on the introduction of an effective verification system. If such a system is to be effective, it will need to be underpinned by the expertise and reagents that have already been used to produce battlefield detectors for biological warfare (BW) agents. Samples for analysis could range from those taken from a fermenter vessel to samples taken from the environment surrounding the suspect facility. The analysis of such samples could be carried out in the field or at specialist laboratories. Specialist laboratories would offer a wider range of tests and a higher degree of test sensitivity; however, the problem of sample transport to the laboratory will need to be addressed. In the longer term, improved fieldable verification equipment could be developed.

Type
ARTICLES
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Politics and the Life Sciences 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allman, R., Hann, A.C., Manchee, R., and Lloyd, D. (1992). “Characterisation of Bacteria by Multiparameter Flow Cytometry.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 73:438–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Avrameas, S. (1992). “Amplification Systems in Immunoenzymatic Techniques.” Journal of Immunological Methods 150:2332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barry, T. and Gannon, F. (1991). “Direct Genomic DNA Amplification from Autoclaved Infectious Microorgansims Using PCR Technology.” PCR Methods and Applications 1:75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barss, P. (1992). “Epidemic Field Investigation as Applied to Allegations of Chemical, Biological, or Toxin Warfare.” Politics and the Life Sciences 11:522.Google Scholar
Bilofsky, H.S. and Burks, C. (1988). “The Genbank (R) Genetic Sequence Data Bank.” Nucleic Acids Research 16:1861–64.Google Scholar
Bock, K., Karlsson, K.A., Stromberg, N., and Teneberg, S. (1988). “Interaction of Viruses, Bacteria and Toxins with Host Cell Glycolipids: Aspects on Receptor Identification and Dissection.” In Wu, A.M. (ed.), The Molecular Immunology of Complex Carbohydrates. New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Brooks, J.L., Moore, A.S., Patchett, R.A., Collins, M.D., and Kroll, R.G. (1990). “Use of the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Oligonucleotide Probes for the Rapid Detection and Identification of Carnobacterium Species from Meat.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 72:294301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carl, M., Hawkins, R., Coulson, N., Robertson, D.L., Sheldon, E.L., Lowe, J., Nelson, W., Titball, R.W., and Woody, J.N. (1992). “Detection of Spores of Bacillus anthracis Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction.” Journal of Infectious Disease 165:1145–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chevrier, M.I. (1990). “Verifying the Unverifiable: Lessons from the Biological Weapons Convention.” Politics and the Life Sciences 9:93105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chevrier, M.I. (1992). “The Biological Weapons Convention: The Third Review Conference.” Politics and the Life Sciences 11:8692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crissan, D. and Mattson, J.C. (1992). “Amplification of Intermediate-Size DNA Sequences from Formalin and B-5 Fixed Tissue by Polymerase Chain Reaction.” Clinical Biochemistry 25:99103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engelhard, E. and Mutters, R. (1991). “Rapid Differentiation of the Genus Bacteriodes sensu stricto by Capillary Gas Chromatography of Cellular Carbohydrates.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 70:216–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fekete, A., Bantle, J.A., Halling, S.M., and Sanborn, M.R. (1990). “Preliminary Development of a Diagnostic Test for Brucella Using Polymerase Chain Reaction.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 69:216–27.Google Scholar
Fomukong, N.G., Dale, J.W., and Osborn, T.W. (1992). “Use of Gene Probes Based on the Insertion Sequence IS986 to Differentiate between BCG Vaccine Strains.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 72:126–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, G.E. et al. (1980). “The Phylogeny of Prokaryotes.” Science 209:457–63.Google Scholar
Goverde, R.L.J., Jansen, W.H., Brunnings, H.A., Huis in t'Veld, J.H.J., and Mooi, F.R. (1993). “Digoxygenin-Labelled inv- and ail-Probes for the Detection and Identification of Pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica in Clinical Specimens and Naturally Contaminated Pig Samples.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 74:301–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, P.L., Moreno, G.S., and Park, R.W.A. (1992). “Differentiation between Thermophilic Campylobacter Species by Species-Specific Antibodies.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 72:467–74.Google Scholar
Hernandez, J., Owen, R.J., Costas, M., and Lastovica, A. (1991). “DNA-DNA Hydridisation and Analysis of Restriction Endonuclease and rRNA Gene Patterns of Atypical (Catalase-Weak/Negative) Campylobacter jejuni from Paediatric Blood and Faecal Cultures.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 70:7180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, W.M., Tyler, S.D., Ewan, E.P., Ashton, F.E., Pollard, D.R., and Rozee, K.R. (1991). “Detection of Genes for Entreotxins, Exfoliative Toxins, and Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin 1 in Staphylococcus aureus by the Polymerase Chain Reaction.” Journal of Clinical Microbiology 29:426–30.Google Scholar
Lentz, T.L. (1990). “The Recognition Event between Virus and Host Cell Receptor: A Target for Antiviral Agents.” Journal of General Virology 71:751–66.Google Scholar
Lin, B., Cotton, R.G.H., Trent, D.W., and Wright, P.J. (1992). “Geographical Clusters of Dengue Virus Type 2 Isolates Based on Analysis of Infected Cell RNA by the Chemical Cleavage at Mismatch Method.” Journal of Virological Methods 40:205–18.Google Scholar
Linton, D., Moreno, M., Owen, R.J., and Stanley, J. (1992). “16S rrn Copy Number in Helicobacter pylori and Its Application to Molecular Typing.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 73:501–6.Google Scholar
Lizardi, P.M. and Kramer, F.R. (1991). “Exponential Amplification of Nucleic Acids: New Diagnostics Using DNA Polymerases and RNA Replicases.” Trends in Biotechnology 9:53.Google Scholar
McCann, J. (1989). “Exploiting Biosensors.” In Turner, A.P.F., Karube, I., and Wilson, G.S. (eds.), Biosensors: Fundamentals and Applications. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Miteva, V.I., Abadjieva, A.N., and Grigorova, R. (1991). “Differentiation among Strains and Serotypes of Bacillus thuringiensis by M13 DNA Fingerprinting.” Journal of General Microbiology 137:593600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miteva, V.I., Abadjieva, A.N., and Stefanova, Tz.T. (1992). “M13 DNA Fingerprinting, a New Tool for Classification and Identification of Lactobacillus spp.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 73:349–54.Google Scholar
Modi, N.K., Shone, C.C., Hambleton, P., and Melling, J. (1986). “Amplification Systems in ELISA: Use of NAD Recycling System in the Immunoassay of Clostridium botulinum Toxins Types A and B in Food.” In Morris, B.A., Clifford, M.N., and Jackman, R. (eds.), Immunoassays for Veterinary and Food Analysis—1. London: Elsevier Applied Science.Google Scholar
Nass, M. (1992). “Can Biological, Toxin, and Chemical Warfare be Eliminated?” Politics and the Life Sciences 11:3032.Google Scholar
Pearson, G.S. (1991). Strengthening the BTWC Regime: A Defence View. Chemical Weapons Convention Bulletin, No. 12, 26.Google Scholar
Pearson, G.S. (1993). “Biological Weapons: The British View.” In Roberts, B. (ed), Biological Weapons: Weapons of the Future? Washington, DC: CSIS Books.Google Scholar
Pesce, A.J. and Michael, J.B. (1992). “Artifacts and Limitations of Enzyme Immunoassay.” Journal of Immunological Methods 150:111–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pillai, S.D, Josephson, K.L., Bailey, R.L., Gerba, C.P., and Pepper, I.L. (1991). “Rapid Method for Processing Soil Samples for Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplification of Specific Gene Sequences.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57:2283–86.Google Scholar
Porstmann, T. and Kiessig, T. (1992). “Enzyme Immunoassay Techniques.” Journal of Immunological Methods 150:521.Google Scholar
Ralphs, N.T., Morse, G.R., Cookson, J.B., Andrew, P.W., and Boulnois, G.J. (1991). “A DNA Primer/Probe System for the Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis-Complex Pathogens.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 70:221–26.Google Scholar
Schengrund, C.L. and Ringler, N.J. (1989). “Binding of Cholera Toxin and the Heat-Labile Enterotoxin of Escherichia coli to GM1, Derivatives of GM1, and Non-Lipid Oligosaccharide Polyvalent Ligands.” Journal of Biological Chemistry 264:13233–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smalla, K., Cresswell, N., Mendonca-Hagler, L.C., Wolters, A., and van Elsas, J.D. (1993). “Rapid DNA Extraction Protocol from Soil for Polymerase Chain Reaction-Mediated Amplification.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 74:7885.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J.M., Dowson, C.G., and Spratt, B.G. (1991). “Localised Sex in Bacteria.” Nature 349:2931.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steffan, R.J. and Atlas, R.M. (1988). “DNA Amplification to Enhance Detection of Genetically Engineered Bacteria in Environmental Samples.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 54:2185–91.Google Scholar
Supran, E.M. (1984). “ELISA: An Update on the Method and the Interpretation of Results—with Apologies for the Virological Bias.” PHLS Microbiology Digest 1:3644.Google Scholar
Tibayrenc, M., Kjellberg, F., and Ayala, F.Y. (1990). “A Clonal Theory of Parasitic Protozoa: The Population Structures of Entamoeba, Giardia, Leishmania, Plasmodium, Trichomonas, and Trypanosoma and their Medical and Taxonomic Consequences.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 87:2414–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trent, D.W., Grant, J.A., Monath, T.P., Manske, C.L., Corina, M., and Fox, G.E. (1989). “Genetic Variation and Microevolution of Dengue 2 Virus in Southeast Asia.” Virology 172:523–35.Google Scholar
Turner, A.P.F., Karube, I., and Wilson, G.S. (1989). Biosensors: Fundamentals and Applications. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
United Nations (1992). “The Third Review Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction, Geneva, 9-27 September.” Final Document, BWC/CONF.III/23, 1992 (Geneva: United Nations, GE.91-62715-Jan 1992-500).Google Scholar
Vaisanen, O.M., Mwaisumo, N.J., and Salkinoja-Salonen, M.S. (1990). “Differentiation of Dairy Strains of the Bacillus cereus Group by Phage Typing, Minimum Growth Temperature and Fatty Acid Analysis.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 70:315–25.Google Scholar
Voller, A., Bartlett, A., and Bidwell, D.E. (1978). “Enzyme Immunoassays with Special Reference to ELISA Techniques.” Journal of Clinical Pathology 31:507.Google Scholar
Walker, J. and Dougan, G. (1989). “DNA Probes: A New Role in Diagnsostic Microbiology.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 67:229–38.Google Scholar
Wall, L.V.M., Zwartouw, H.T., and Kelly, D.C. (1989). “Discrimination between Twenty Isolates of Herpesvirus Simiae (B Virus) by Restiction Enzyme Analysis of the Viral Genome.” Virus Research 12:283–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wernars, K., Heuvelman, C.J., Chakraborty, T., and Notermans, S.H.W. (1991). “Use of the Polymerase Chain Reaction for Direct Detection of Listeria monocytogenes in Soft Cheese.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 70:121–26.Google Scholar
Wheelis, M.L. (1992). “Strengthening Biological Weapons Control through Global Epidemiological Surveillance.” Politics and the Life Sciences 11:179–89.Google Scholar
Woese, C.R. (1987). “Bacterial Evolution.” Microbiological Reviews 47:221–71.Google Scholar