Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T13:23:08.697Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Highlighting inequalities in the histories of human rights: Contestations over justice, needs and rights in the 1970s

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2018

JULIA DEHM
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article considers the ways in which concerns about economic equalities, both among and within countries, were taken up in human rights debates of the 1970s and how concerns about economic inequalities impacted on discussions about the possibilities, objectives and conceptions of rights. It shows how scholars and advocates from the global South, concerned about the production of underdevelopment and unequal accumulation, advocated a more ‘structural approach’ to human rights during this period that argued that a just international order was necessary for the realization of rights. The article first considers Third World demands for a New International Economic Order to address inequalities among countries, as well as the potentially conflicting focus on inequalities within countries by the World Bank and its subsequent promotion of a ‘basic needs’ approach to development. Thereafter, it considers how these different approaches to economic inequality were taken up in and influenced human rights debates and frameworks of this period.

Keywords

developmenteconomic inequalityhistoryhuman rightsNew International Economic Order
Type
INTERNATIONAL LEGAL THEORY: Symposium on the ‘Trajectories of International Legal Histories’
Information
Leiden Journal of International Law , Volume 31 , Issue 4 , December 2018 , pp. 871 - 895
Copyright
© Foundation of the Leiden Journal of International Law 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Lecturer, La Trobe University School of Law [[email protected]]. An earlier draft of this article was discussed at the ‘Author(is)ing the South: Law Historiographies and Political Economies’ workshop at Harvard Law School and presented at the Leiden Journal of International Law 30th Anniversary Symposium, ‘The Trajectories of International Legal Histories’. Many thanks to the participants of both events for their helpful feedback and suggestions, especially to Ingo Venzke. All errors are, of course, my own.

References

1 Bostelmann, T., The 1970s: A New Global History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality (2013), at 3–4Google Scholar.

2 For recent scholarship on the NIEO see the special issue of Humanity: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism and Development (Spring 2015) as well as J. von Bernstorff and P. Dann (eds.) The Battle for International Law in the Decolonization Era (forthcoming).

3 Proclamation of Teheran, Final Act of the International Conference on Human Rights, Teheran, 22 April to 13 May 1968, UN Doc. A/CONF.32/41 (1968), para 12.

4 Alston, P., Development and the Rule of Law: Prevention versus Cure as a Human Rights Strategy (1981), 9Google Scholar.

5 ‘Alternative Approaches and Ways and Means within the United Nations System for Improving the Effective Enjoyment of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms’, UNGA Res. 32/130, UN Doc. A/RES/32/130 (16 December 1977).

6 Gonzales, T., ‘The Political Sources of Procedural Debates in the United Nations: Structural Impediments to Implementation of Human Rights’, (1981) 13 International Law and Politics 427, at 471, note 192Google Scholar.

7 There is extensive literature on contemporary economic inequality. See, for example, Hickel, J., The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions (2017)Google Scholar; Milanovic, B., Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globalization (2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Piketty, T., Capital in the Twenty-First Century (2014)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

8 See particularly, P. Alston, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, UN Doc. A/HRC/29/31 (27 May 2015); Balakrishnan, R., Heintz, J. and Elson, D., Rethinking Economic Policy for Social Justice: The Radical Potential of Human Rights (2016)Google Scholar; Lettinga, D. and van Troost, L. (eds.), ‘Can Human Rights Bring Social Justice? Twelve Essays’, Amnesty International Netherlands, 2015, available at www.amnesty.nl/content/uploads/2015/10/can_human_rights_bring_social_justice.pdfGoogle Scholar; Saiz, I. and Oré Aguilar, G. (eds.), ‘Economic Inequality – Can Human Rights Make a Difference?’, openDemocracy, available at, www.opendemocracy.net/openglobalrights/economic-inequality-and-human-rightsGoogle Scholar; Saloman, M., ‘Why should it matter that others have more? Poverty, inequality and the potential of international human rights law’, (2011) 37(5) Review of International Studies 2137CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moyn, S., Not Enough: Human Rights in an Unequal World (2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 See, for example, Alston; Balakrishnan, Heintz and Elson; and Saloman, ibid.

10 S. Moyn, supra note 8; S. Moyn, ‘Human rights and the age of inequality’, openDemocracy, 27 October 2015, available at www.opendemocracy.net/openglobalrights/samuel-moyn/human-rights-and-age-of-inequality.

11 See Bon Tempo, C., ‘From the Center-Right: Freedom House and Human Rights in the 1970s and 1980s’, in Iriye, A., Goedde, P. and Hitchcock, W. (eds.), The Human Rights Revolution: An International History (2012), 224Google Scholar.

12 Hoffmann, S., ‘Genealogies of Human Rights’, in Hoffmann, S. (ed.), Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (2011), 1Google Scholar; see also Moyn, S., The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (2012)Google Scholar; Keys, B., Reclaiming American Virtue: The Human Rights Revolution of the 1970s (2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Duranti, M., The Conservative Human Rights Revolution: European Identity, Transnational Politics and the Origins of the European Convention (2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jensen, S., The Making of International Human Rights: The 1960s, Decolonization, and the Reconstruction of Global Values (2017)Google Scholar.

13 Hoffmann, S., ‘Human Rights and History’, (2016) Past and Present 1, at 30Google Scholar.

14 Ibid., at 31.

15 Venzke, I., ‘Possibilities of the Past: Histories of the NIEO and the Travails of Critique’, (2017) Amsterdam Center for International Law Research Paper No. 2017-26, at 2Google Scholar. On ‘false contingencies’ see Marks, S., ‘False Contingency’, (2009) 62(1) Current Legal Problems 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Venzke supra note 15, at 3.

17 R. McNamara, Address to the Board of Governors by Robert S. McNamara (1972), The World Bank, at 7.

18 A. Sadd-Filho, ‘Growth, Poverty, Inequality: From Washington Consensus to Inclusive Growth’ (November 2010) DESA Working Paper No. 100, at 3.

19 McNamara, supra note 17, at 8.

20 UNGA Res. 2626(XXV), ‘International Development Strategy for the Second United Nations Development Decade’, UN Doc. A/RES/25/2626 (24 October 1970).

21 Committee for Development Planning, Report of the Eighth Session, Economic and Social Council, Fifty-third session, Supplement 7, UN Doc. E/5126 (10–20 April 1972), para 9.

22 Ibid., para. 10.

23 4th Summit Conference of Heads of State or Government of the Non-Aligned Movement, Algiers, Algeria 5–9 September 1973, UN Doc. A/9330 (23 November 1973), at 18; see also Bedjaoui, M., Towards a New International Economic Order (1980), at 34Google Scholar.

24 UN Doc. A/9330, Ibid., at 19.

25 Gilman, N., ‘The New International Economic Order: A Reintroduction’, (2015) 6(1) Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 1, at 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Bedjaoui, supra note 23, at 23–4.

27 ‘Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order’, UNGA Res. 3201, UN Doc. A/RES/S-6/3201 (1 May 1974).

28 ‘Programme of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order’, UNGA Res. 3202(S-VI), UN Doc. A/RES/S-6/3203 (1 May 1974).

29 Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, UNGA Res. 3281(XXIX), UN Doc. A/RES/29/3281 (12 December 1974).

30 Cited in R. Meagher, An International Redistribution of Wealth and Power: A Study of the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States (1979), at 3.

31 Gilman, supra note 25, at 1.

32 Őzsu, U., ‘Neoliberalism and the New International Economic Order: A History of “Contemporary Legal Thought”’, in Tomlins, C. and Desautels-Stein, J. (eds.), In Search of Contemporary Legal Thought (2016)Google Scholar.

33 Meagher, supra note 30, at 5.

34 See Salomon, M., ‘From the NIEO to Now and the Unfinished Story of Economic Justice’, (2013) 62 International Comparative Law Quarterly 31, at 46, note 86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Meagher, supra note 30, at 5.

36 Salomon, supra note 34, at 46; see also Özsu, U., ‘“In the Interests of Mandkind as a Whole”: Mohammed Bedjaoui’s New International Economic Order’ (2015) 6 Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 129CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 McNamara, supra note 17. McNamara made a similar argument in his speeches to the Economic and Social Council (18 October 1972) and UNCTAD (14 April 1972).

38 Ibid., at 14.

39 Ibid., at 15.

40 R. McNamara, President of the World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) ‘Address to the U.N. Economic and Social Council’, (18 October 1972), at 6.

41 R. McNamara, ‘Address to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development’, (Santiago, Chile, 14 April 1972).

42 R. McNamara, ‘Address to the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment’, (Stockholm, Sweden, 8 June 1972).

43 R. McNamara, ‘Address to the Board of Governors’, (Nairobi, Kenya, 24 September 1973).

44 Ibid., at 13.

45 See International Labour Organization, Meeting Basic Needs: Strategies for Eradicating Mass Poverty and Unemployment (Conclusion of the World Employment Conference 1976 (1977).

46 International Labour Organization, ‘Employment, Growth and Basic Needs: A One-World Problem. Report of the Director-General of the International Labour Office’, (1976); see also Hoadley, J., ‘The Rise and Fall of the Basic Needs Approach’, (1981) Cooperation and Conflict 149CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 Chenery, H. et al., ‘Redistribution with Growth’, (1974)Google Scholar. The themes of the report had been developed in three Employment Missions of the ILO’s World Employment Programme to Colombia, Sri Lanka, and Kenya, and ILO publication ‘Employment, Incomes and Equality’, (1972).

48 World Bank Press Release, 30 September 1974.

49 Saad-Filho, supra note 18, at 3.

50 Finnemore, M., ‘Redefining Development at the World Bank’, in Cooper, F. and Packard, R. (eds.), International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge (1997), 203Google Scholar.

51 See Hoadley, supra note 46, at 151–2.

52 Finnemore, supra note 50, at 203.

53 Sharma, P., ‘Between North and South: The World Bank and the New International Economic Order’, (2015) 6(1) Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism and Development 189, at 190CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 See Pahuja, S., ‘Global Poverty and the Politics of Good Intentions’, in Buchanan, R. and Zumbansen, P. (eds.), Law in Translation: Human Rights, Development and Transitional Justice (2014)Google Scholar.

55 See Galtung, J., ‘The New International Economic Order and the Basic Needs Approach’, (1978–79) 4 Alternatives 445Google Scholar.

56 Bedjaoui, supra note 23, at 28.

57 Ibid., at 23.

58 See Hoadley, supra note 46, at 149.

59 See Harvey, D., A Brief History of Neoliberalism (2005)Google Scholar.

60 For the first position see Sharma, P., ‘Bureaucratic imperatives and policy outcomes: The origins of World Bank structural adjustment lending’, (2013) 20(4) Review of International Political Economy 667CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

61 Arrighi, G., ‘The world economy and the Cold War, 1970–1985’, in Leffler, M. and Westad, O. (eds.), The Cambridge History of the Cold War, Volume 3: Endings (2010), 35Google Scholar. See also Toye, J., Dilemmas of Development: Reflections on the Counter-Revolution in Development Economics (1993)Google Scholar.

62 See Carrasco, E. and Ayhan Kose, M., ‘Income Distribution and the Bretton Woods Institutions: Promoting and Enabling Environment for Social Development’, (1996) 6 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 1, at 31–2Google Scholar.

63 Ibid.

64 ‘The SAPRI Report: Structural Adjustment: The Policy Roots of Economic Crisis, Poverty and Inequality’, (2002), at 203.

65 Abouharb, M.R. and Cingranelli, D., Human Rights and Structural Adjustment (2007)Google Scholar.

66 For example, Darnton, J., ‘“Lost Decade” Drains Africa’s Vitality’, The New York Times, 19 June 1994, available at www.nytimes.com/1994/06/19/world/lost-decade-drains-africa-s-vitality.html?pagewanted=allGoogle Scholar.

67 ‘The State of International Economic Co-operation and Effective Ways and Means of Revitalizing the Economic Growth and Development of Developing Countries: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc. A/AC.233/5 (30 January 1990).

68 Mirowski, P. and Plehwe, D. (eds.), The Road from Mont Pèlerin (2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

69 See Foucault, M., Birth of Biopolitics, Lectures at the Collège de France 1978-79 (2008)Google Scholar and also Brown, W., Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism’s Stealth Revolution (2015)Google Scholar.

70 See Harvey, supra note 59.

71 See Foucault, supra note 69, at 118–19 and also Lazzarato, M., ‘Neoliberalism in Action: Inequality, Insecurity and the Reconstitution of the Social’, (2009) 26(6) Theory, Culture and Society 109CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72 Hayek, F.A., ‘The Constitution of Liberty’, in Hamowy, R. (ed.), The Collected Works of F.A. Hayek, (2011, vol. XVII), at 96Google Scholar.

73 Ibid., at 101.

74 Ibid., at 102.

75 Ibid., at 150.

76 P. Alston, supra note 4; see also Baxi, U., ‘The New International Economic Order, Basic Needs and Rights: Notes Towards Development of the Right to Development’, (1983) 23(2) Indian Journal of International Law 225Google Scholar.

77 Proceedings of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Third Session, Vol. 1, Report and Annexes, UN Doc. TD/180, para. 210; see also Ogle, V., ‘State Rights Against Private Capital: The “New International Economic Order” and the Struggle Over Aid, Trade and Foreign Investment, 1962–1981’, (2014) 5(2) Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 211, at 219CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 UNCTAD, Res. 45(III) (18 May 1972).

79 ‘Study of the question of the realization of economic and social rights contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights’, Commission on Human Rights, Res. 11(XXIV) UN Doc. E/CN.4/972 (1968), at 155.

80 Tehran Proclamation, supra note 3, para 12.

81 ‘Question of the realization of the economic, social and cultural rights contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and study of the special problems relating to human rights in developing countries’, Commission on Human Rights, Res. 14(XXV) (13 March 1969).

82 M. Ganji, ‘The Widening Gap: A Study of the Realization of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights – Preface and Introduction’, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1108 and Add.1-9 (5 February 1973); see also Commission on Human Rights, Res. 1792(LIV) (18 May 1973).

83 M. Ganji, ‘The Widening Gap: A Study of the Realization of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1131 (1 January 1974).

84 M. Ganji, ‘The Realization of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Problems, Policies’, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1108/Rev.1 (1975).

85 Ibid., at 309–18.

86 Ganji, ‘The Widening Gap’, supra note 83, para. 12.

87 Ibid.

88 Ibid., para. 13.

89 Ibid., para. 20.

90 Ibid., para. 78.

91 See Ganji, ‘The Realization of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’, supra note 84, Ch. V: The International Context, at 113.

92 Ibid., para. 302.

93 Ibid., para. 308.

94 Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Thirtieth Session (4 February–8 March 1974), UN Doc. E/CN.4/1154, para. 79.

95 Ibid., para. 80.

96 Ibid., ‘Question of the Realization of the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and study of special problems relating to human rights in developing countries’.

97 Ibid., para 34.

98 Burke, R., ‘Competing for the Last Utopia?: The NIEO, Human Rights, and the World Conference for the International Women’s Year, Mexico City, June 1975’, (2015) 6(1) Humanity: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 47, at 50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

99 Commission on Human Rights, Report of the Thirty-Second Session (2 February–5 March 1976), UN Doc. E/CN.4/1213, para 9.

100 Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Thirty-Third Session (7 February–11 March 1977), Res. 4(XXXIII) ‘Question of the Realization of the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and study on special problems relating to human rights in developing countries’, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1257, at 74, preamble.

101 Ibid.

102 ‘Introduction’ in ‘Realizing the Right to Development: Essays in Commemoration of 25 Years of the United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development’, OCHR, 2013, available at www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/RightDevelopmentInteractive_EN.pdf, at 3.

103 UNGA Res. 32/130 (1977), supra note 5.

104 Burke, ‘Competing’, supra note 98, at 57.

105 UNGA Res. 32/130 (1977), supra note 5, para. 1(b).

106 Ibid., para. 1(f).

107 United Nations General Assembly, Thirty-Second Session, 105th plenary meeting, 16 December 1977, at 3:30pm, UN Doc. A/32/PV.105, para. 138.

108 Ibid., para. 125.

109 Donnelly, J., ‘Recent Trends in UN Human Rights Activity: Description and Polemic’, (1981) 35(4) International Organization 633–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also a response, Alston, P., ‘The Alleged Demise of Political Human Rights at the UN: A Reply to Donnelly’, (1983) 37(3) International Organization 537–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

110 Donnelly, ibid., at 655.

111 See also Alston, P., ‘Foreword’, in Langford, M. (ed.), Social Rights Jurisprudence: Emerging Trends in International and Comparative Law (2008)Google Scholar, for a critique of this focus.

112 Burke, ‘Competing?’, supra note 98, at 52.

113 Marks, S., ‘The Human Right to Development: Between Rhetoric and Reality’, (2004) 17 Harvard Human Rights Journal 137Google Scholar.

114 Whelan, D., ‘“Under the Aegis of Man”: The Right to Development and the Origins of the New International Economic Order’, (2015) 6(1) Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism and Development 93, at 94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

115 M’Baye, K., ‘Le droit au developpement comme un droit de l’homme’, (1972) 5 Revue des droits de l’homme 505Google Scholar.

116 Bedjaoui, M., ‘The Right to Development’, in Bedjaoui, M. (ed.), International Law: Achievements and Prospects (1991), 1177 at 1179 (emphasis in original)Google Scholar.

117 Ibid., at 1181.

118 Ibid.

119 Ibid., at 1182.

120 Ibid., at 1182 (emphasis in original).

121 Commission on Human Rights Res. 4(XXXIII), supra note 100. See also Report of the Secretary-General on the International Dimensions of the Right to Development as a Human Right, UN Economic and Social Council Official Records, Thirty-fifth session, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1334 (1979).

122 UNESCO, ‘Expert Meeting on Human Rights, Human Needs and the Establishment of a New International Economic Order, Paris 19–23 June 1978’, UN Doc. SS.78/Conf.630/2 (29 December 1978), para 65.

123 Ibid., para. 55.

124 Ibid., para. 67.

125 Ibid.

126 ‘Report submitted by UNESCO in connexion [sic] with paragraph 4 of resolution 4(XXXIII) of the Commission on Human Rights’, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1340 (9 February 1979).

127 Baxi, supra note 76, at 225–6.

128 Ibid., at 229.

129 ‘The international dimensions of the right to development as a human right in relation with other human rights based on international co-operation, including the right to peace, taking into account the requirements of the New International Economic Order and the fundamental human rights: Report of the Secretary-General’, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1334 (2 January 1979).

130 Ibid., para. 74.

131 Ibid., para. 37.

132 UNESCO, ‘Medium Term Plan (1977–1982)’, cited in ibid.

133 Ibid., at 314.

134 P. Alston, Development and the Rule of Law, supra note 4, at 19.

135 ‘Alternative approaches and ways and means within the United Nations system for improving the effective enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms’, UNGA Res. 34/46, UN Doc. A/RES/34/46 (23 November 1979), para. 10.

136 Seminar on the Effects of Existing Unjust International Economic Order on the Economies of the Developing Countries and the Obstacle that this Represents for the Implementation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Geneva, Switzerland, 30 June–11 July 1980, UN Doc. ST/HR/SER.A/8.

137 Cited in R. Ferrero, Special Rapporteur on the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, ‘The New International Economic Order and the Promotion of Human Rights’, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1983/24/Rev.1 (1986), 2.

138 See Moyn, S., ‘The 1970s as a Turning Point in Human Rights History’, in Eckel, J. and Moyn, S. (eds.), The Breakthrough: Human Rights in the 1970s (2014), 2Google Scholar; see also Moyn, The Last Utopia, supra note 12.

139 On this, see particularly S. Moyn, ‘Human rights and the age of inequality’, supra note 10; see also M. Nolan, ‘Human Rights and Market Fundamentalism’, (Max Weber Lecture Series, European University Institute, 2014/02).

140 S. Marks, ‘Four Human Rights Myths’, in Kinley, D., Sadurski, W. and Walton, K. (eds.), Human Rights: Old Problems, New Possibilities (2013), 217–35Google Scholar.

141 Klein, N., The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (2007)Google Scholar.

142 Marks, supra note 140, at 226.

143 Moyn, S., ‘A Powerless Companion: Human Rights in the Age of Neoliberalism’, (2014) 77(4) Law and Contemporary Problems 147, at 150Google Scholar.

144 Ibid., at 149.

145 See Anghie, A., ‘Legal Aspects of the New International Economic Order’, (2015) 6(1) Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 145, at 154CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

146 See Asad, T., ‘What Do Human Rights Do?: An Anthropological Enquiry’, (2000) 4(4) Theory & EventGoogle Scholar, Whyte, J., ‘Neoliberalism and the Collateral Damage of Human Rights: On Talal Asad’s “What Do Human Rights Do?”’, (2017) 20(1) Theory & Event 137Google Scholar. See also Marx, K., ‘On the Jewish Question’, in Early Writings (1974)Google Scholar.

147 Nolan, supra note 139, at 1.

148 Cited in Burke, ‘Competing?’, supra note 98, at 54–5.

149 J. Scali, ‘Address by Ambassador John Scali, United States representative to the United Nations, at the Twelfth North American Invitational Model United Nations, Washington DC, 6 March 1975’, in Veenhoven, W. (ed.), Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: A World Survey (1976), Vol. V, at 565–71Google Scholar.

150 Cited in Burke, R., ‘From Individual Rights to National Development: The First UN Conference on Human Rights, Tehran, 1968’, (2008) 19(3) Journal of World History 275, at 291–2, note 68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

151 For a discussion of Moynihan’s politics and engagement with the UN see Tor, G., Moynihan’s Moment: America’s Fight Against Zionism as Racism (2013)Google Scholar.

152 Ibid., at 36.

153 Ibid., at 40.

154 Ibid., at 35.

155 Moynihan, D., ‘The United States in Opposition’, (1975) 59(3) Commentary 31, at 31Google Scholar.

156 Ibid., at 34.

157 Ibid., at 38.

158 Ibid., at 42.

159 Ibid., at 43.

160 Ibid., at 44.

161 Ibid.

162 Ibid., at 20.

163 On this see also Keys, supra note 12.

164 Burke, R., ‘Human Rights Day after the “breakthrough”: Celebrating the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at the United Nations in 1978 and 1979’, (2015) 10 Journal of Global History 147, at 147CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

165 Ferrero, supra note 137.

166 Ibid., at 3.

167 Ibid., at 3.

168 Ibid., at 10.

169 Ibid., at 17.

170 Ibid., at 17.

171 Ibid., at 18.

172 See the Limburg Principles on the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1987/17; P. Alston and G. Quinn, ‘The Nature and Scope of State Parties’ Obligations under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’; and the other articles in the Symposium in (1987) 9(2) Human Rights Quarterly.

173 UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 3, ‘The Nature of State Parties’ Obligations’, UN Doc. E/1991/23 (14 December 1990).

174 Young, K., ‘The Minimum Core of Economic and Social Rights: A Concept in Search of Content’, (2008) 33 Yale Journal of International Law 113, at 128Google Scholar.

175 Ibid., at 131.

176 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Banjul Charter) (adopted 27 June 1981, entered into force 21 October 1986) (1982) 21 ILM 58, Art. 22.

177 ‘Alternative Approaches and Ways and Means Within the United Nations System for Improving the Effective Enjoyment of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms’, UNGA Res. 36/133, UN Doc. A/RES/36/133 (14 December 1981).

178 Commission on Human Rights Res. 36, UN ESCOR, 37th session, Supp. No. 5, at 237, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1475 (1981).

179 Marks, supra 113, at 143.

180 Ibid.

181 Declaration on the Right to Development, General Assembly Res. 41/128, UN Doc. A/RES/41/128 (4 December 1986).

182 Uvin, P., ‘From the Right to Development to the Rights-Based Approach: How “Human Rights” Entered Development’, (2007) 17(4/5) Development in Practice 597, at 598CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

183 Ibid.