Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T04:36:38.425Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Hierarchical Factor Model of Executive Functions in Adolescents: Evidence of Gene-Environment Interplay

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 December 2014

James J. Li ,
Tammy A. Chung ,
Michael M. Vanyukov ,
D. Scott Wood ,
Robert Ferrell  and
Duncan B. Clark
James J. Li*
Affiliation:
Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
Tammy A. Chung
Affiliation:
Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Michael M. Vanyukov
Affiliation:
Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
D. Scott Wood
Affiliation:
Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Robert Ferrell
Affiliation:
Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Duncan B. Clark
Affiliation:
Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: James J. Li, Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, 800 East Leigh Street, P.O. Box 980126, Richmond, VA 23298-0126. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Executive functions (EF) are a complex set of neurodevelopmental, higher-ordered processes that are especially salient during adolescence. Disruptions to these processes are predictive of psychiatric problems in later adolescence and adulthood. The objectives of the current study were to characterize the latent structure of EF using bifactor analysis and to investigate the independent and interactive effects of genes and environments on EF during adolescence. Using a representative young adolescent sample, we tested the interaction of a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) and parental supervision for EF through hierarchical linear regression. To account for the possibility of a hierarchical factor structure for EF, a bifactor analysis was conducted on the eight subtests of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Functions System (D-KEFS). The bifactor analysis revealed the presence of a general EF construct and three EF subdomains (i.e., conceptual flexibility, inhibition, and fluency). A significant 5-HTTLPR by parental supervision interaction was found for conceptual flexibility, but not for general EF, fluency or inhibition. Specifically, youth with the L/L genotype had significantly lower conceptual flexibility scores compared to youth with S/S or S/L genotypes given low levels of parental supervision. Our findings indicate that adolescents with the L/L genotype were especially vulnerable to poor parental supervision on EF. This vulnerability may be amenable to preventive interventions. (JINS, 2014, 20, 62–73)

Keywords

Executive functionsBifactor modelAdolescenceGene-environment interaction5-HTTLPRParental supervision
Type
Research Articles
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 21 , Issue 1 , January 2015 , pp. 62 - 73
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alarcón, M., Plomin, R., Fulker, D.W., Corley, R., & DeFries, J.C. (1998). Molarity not modularity: Multivariate genetic analysis of specific cognitive abilities in 16-year-old children in the Colorado Adoption Project. Cognitive Development, 14, 175–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, V., Northam, E., Hendy, J., & Wrenall, J. (2001). Developmental neuropsychology: A clinical approach. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Ando, J., Ono, Y., & Wright, M.J. (2001). Genetic structure of spatial and verbal working memory. Behavior Genetics, 31, 615–624.Google Scholar
Barkley, R.A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908.Google Scholar
Bertolino, A., Blasi, G., Latorre, V., Rubino, V., Rampino, A., Sinibaldi, L., & Dallapiccola, B. (2006). Additive effects of genetic variation in dopamine regulating genes on working memory cortical activity in human brain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 3918–3922.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Best, J.R., Miller, P.H., & Naglieri, J.A. (2011). Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 327–336.Google Scholar
Birrell, J.M., & Brown, V.J. (2000). Medial frontal cortex mediates perceptual attentional set shifting in the rat. The Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 4320–4324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blakemore, S.J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 296–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanchard, M.M., Chamberlain, S.R., Roiser, J., Robbins, T.W., & Müller, U. (2011). Effects of two dopamine-modulating genes (DAT1 9/10 and COMT Val/Met) on n-back working memory performance in healthy volunteers. Psychological Medicine, 41, 611–618.Google Scholar
Bogenschneider, K., Wu, M.Y., Raffaelli, M., & Tsay, J.C. (1998). Parent influences on adolescent peer orientation and substance use: The interface of parenting practices and values. Child Development, 69, 1672–1688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borg, J., Henningsson, S., Saijo, T., Inoue, M., Bah, J., Westberg, L., & Farde, L. (2009). Serotonin transporter genotype is associated with cognitive performance but not regional 5-HT1A receptor binding in humans. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 12, 783–792.Google Scholar
Brody, G.H., Beach, S.R.H., Philibert, R.A., Chen, Y.F., & Murry, V.M. (2009). Prevention effects moderate the association of 5-HTTLPR and youth risk behavior initiation: Gene x environment hypotheses tested via a randomized prevention design. Child Development, 80, 645–661.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Hariri, A.R., Holmes, A., Uher, R., & Moffitt, T.E. (2010). Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 509–527.Google Scholar
Chesler, E.J., Lu, L., Shou, S., Qu, Y., Gu, J., Wang, J., & Williams, R.W. (2005). Complex trait analysis of gene expression uncovers polygenic and pleiotropic networks that modulate nervous system function. Nature Genetics, 37, 233–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, C., Prior, M., & Kinsella, G. (2002). The relationship between executive function abilities, adaptive behaviour, and academic achievement in children with externalising behaviour problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 785–796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, D.B., Thatcher, D.L., & Maisto, S.A. (2004). Adolescent neglect and alcohol use disorders in two-parent families. Child Maltreatment, 9, 357–370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, D.B., Thatcher, D.L., & Maisto, S.A. (2005). Supervisory neglect and adolescent alcohol use disorders: Effects on AUD onset and treatment outcome. Addictive Behaviors, 30, 1737–1750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, D.B., Kirisci, L., Mezzich, A., & Chung, T. (2008). Parental supervision and alcohol use in adolescence: Developmentally specific interactions. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 29, 285–292.Google Scholar
Clark, D.B., Chung, T., Pajtek, S., Zhai, Z., Long, E., & Hasler, B. (2013). Neuroimaging methods for adolescent substance use disorder prevention science. Prevention Science, 14, 300–309.Google Scholar
Clarke, H.F., Dalley, J.W., Crofts, H.S., Robbins, T.W., & Roberts, A.C. (2004). Cognitive inflexibility after prefrontal serotonin depletion. Science, 304, 878–880.Google Scholar
Collette, F., Van der Linden, M., Laureys, S., Delfiore, G., Degueldre, C., Luxen, A., & Salmon, E. (2005). Exploring the unity and diversity of the neural substrates of executive functioning. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 409–423.Google Scholar
Conger, R.D., Ge, X., Elder, G.H., Lorenz, F.O., & Simons, R.L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541–561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coolidge, F.L., Thede, L.L., & Young, S.E. (2000). Heritability and the comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with behavioral disorders and executive function deficits: A preliminary investigation. Developmental Neuropsychology, 17, 273–287.Google Scholar
Cools, R., Roberts, A.C., & Robbins, T.W. (2008). Serotoninergic regulation of emotional and behavioural control processes. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 31–40.Google Scholar
Crean, J., Richards, J.B., & de Wit, H. (2002). Effect of tryptophan depletion on impulsive behavior in men with or without a family history of alcoholism. Behavioural Brain Research, 136, 349–357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crone, E.A. (2009). Executive functions in adolescence: Inferences from brain and behavior. Developmental Science, 12, 825–830.Google Scholar
Dean, F.B., Hosono, S., Fang, L., Wu, X., Faruqi, A.F., Bray-Ward, P., & Lasken, R.S. (2002). Comprehensive human genome amplification using multiple displacement amplification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 5261–5266.Google Scholar
Delis, D.C., Kaplan, E., & Kramer, J.H. (2001). Delis-Kaplan executive function system (D-KEFS). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Dishion, T.J., & McMahon, R.J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 61–75.Google Scholar
Ernst, M. (2014). The triadic model perspective for the study of adolescent motivated behavior. Brain and Cognition, 89, 104–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enge, S., Fleischhauer, M., Lesch, K.P., Reif, A., & Strobel, A. (2011). Serotonergic modulation in executive functioning: Linking genetic variations to working memory performance. Neuropsychologia, 49, 3776–3785.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, N.P., Miyake, A., Young, S.E., DeFries, J.C., Corley, R.P., & Hewitt, J.K. (2008). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 201–225.Google Scholar
Fuster, J.M. (2001). The prefrontal cortex--An update: Time is of the essence. Neuron, 30, 319–333.Google Scholar
Galambos, N.L., Barker, E.T., & Almeida, D.M. (2003). Parents do matter: Trajectories of change in externalizing and internalizing problems in early adolescence. Child Development, 74, 578–594.Google Scholar
Gelernter, J., Cubells, J.F., Kidd, J.R., Pakstis, A.J., & Kidd, K.K. (1999). Population studies of polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter protein gene. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88, 61–66.Google Scholar
Ghahremani, D.G., Lee, B., Robertson, C.L., Tabibnia, G., Morgan, A.T., De Shetler, N., & London, E.D. (2012). Striatal dopamine D2/D3 receptors mediate response inhibition and related activity in frontostriatal neural circuitry in humans. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 7316–7324.Google Scholar
Giancola, P.R., & Tarter, R.E. (1999). Executive cognitive functioning and risk for substance abuse. Psychological Science, 10, 203–205.Google Scholar
Gibb, B.E., Uhrlass, D.J., Grassia, M., Benas, J.S., & McGeary, J. (2009). Children’s inferential styles, 5-HTTLPR genotype, and maternal expressed emotion-criticism: An integrated model for the intergenerational transmission of depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 734–745.Google Scholar
Gizer, I.R., Ficks, C., & Waldman, I.D. (2009). Candidate gene studies of ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Human Genetics, 126, 51–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman-Rakic, P.S. (1996). Regional and cellular fractionation of working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93, 13473–13480.Google Scholar
Greenberg, B.D., Tolliver, T.J., Huang, S.J., Li, Q., Bengel, D., & Murphy, D.L. (1999). Genetic variation in the serotonin transporter promoter region affects serotonin uptake in human blood platelets. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88, 83–87.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greve, K.W., Farrell, J.F., Besson, P.S., & Crouch, J.A. (1995). A psychometric analysis of the California Card Sorting Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 10, 265–278.Google Scholar
Hackman, D.A., Farah, M.J., & Meaney, M.J. (2010). Socioeconomic status and the brain: Mechanistic insights from human and animal research. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 651–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B.L., Nederhof, E., Oppenheimer, C.W., Jenness, J., Young, J.F., Abela, J.R.Z., & Oldehinkel, A.J. (2011). Differential susceptibility in youth: Evidence that 5-HTTLPR x positive parenting is associated with positive affect ‘for better and worse’. Translational Psychiatry, 1, e44.Google Scholar
Hirshorn, E.A., & Thompson-Schill, S.L. (2006). Role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in covert word retrieval: Neural correlates of switching during verbal fluency. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2547–2557.Google Scholar
Hobson, C.W., Scott, S., & Rubia, K. (2011). Investigation of cool and hot executive function in ODD/CD independently of ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 1035–1043.Google Scholar
Homberg, J.R., Schiepers, O.J., Schoffelmeer, A.N., Cuppen, E., & Vanderschuren, L.J. (2007). Acute and constitutive increases in central serotonin levels reduce social play behaviour in peri-adolescent rats. Psychopharmacology, 195, 175–182.Google Scholar
Hu, X.Z., Lipsky, R.H., Zhu, G., Akhtar, L.A., Taubman, J., Greenberg, B.D., & Goldman, D. (2006). Serotonin transporter promoter gain-of-function genotypes are linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Human Genetics, 78, 815–826.Google Scholar
Hughes, C.H., & Ensor, R.A. (2009). How do families help or hinder the emergence of early executive function? New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 35–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huizinga, M., Dolan, C.V., & van der Molen, M.W. (2006). Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2017–2036.Google Scholar
Jacob, T., Moser, R.P., Windle, M., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2000). A new measure of parenting practices involving preadolescent-and adolescent-aged children. Behavior Modification, 24, 611–634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffee, S., & Price, T. (2007). Gene–environment correlations: A review of the evidence and implications for prevention of mental illness. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 432–442.Google Scholar
Jedema, H.P., Gianaros, P.J., Greer, P.J., Kerr, D.D., Liu, S., Higley, J.D., & Bradberry, C.W. (2010). Cognitive impact of genetic variation of the serotonin transporter in primates is associated with differences in brain morphology rather than serotonin neurotransmission. Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 512–522.Google Scholar
Jurado, M.B., & Rosselli, M. (2007). The elusive nature of executive functions: A review of our current understanding. Neuropsychology Review, 17, 213–233.Google Scholar
Kalin, N.H., Shelton, S.E., Fox, A.S., Rogers, J., Oakes, T.R., & Davidson, R.J. (2008). The serotonin transporter genotype is associated with intermediate brain phenotypes that depend on the context of eliciting stressor. Molecular Psychiatry, 13, 1021–1027.Google Scholar
Karg, K., Burmeister, M., Shedden, K., & Sen, S. (2011). The serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), stress, and depression meta-analysis revisited: Evidence of genetic moderation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 444–454.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Yang, B.Z., Douglas-Palumberi, H., Houshyar, S., Lipschitz, D., Krystal, J.H., & Gelernter, J. (2004). Social supports and serotonin transporter gene moderate depression in maltreated children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 17316–17321.Google Scholar
Kerr, A., & Zelazo, P.D. (2004). Development of “hot” executive function: The children's gambling task. Brain and Cognition, 55, 148–157.Google Scholar
King, I.B., Satia-Abouta, J., Thornquist, M.D., Bigler, J., Patterson, R.E., Kristal, A.R., & White, E. (2002). Buccal cell DNA yield, quality, and collection costs: Comparison of methods for large-scale studies. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers, and Prevention, 11, 1130–1133.Google Scholar
Krämer, U.M., Rojo, N., Schüle, R., Cunillera, T., Schöls, L., Marco-Pallarés, J., & Münte, T.F. (2009). ADHD candidate gene (DRD4 exon III) affects inhibitory control in a healthy sample. BMC Neuroscience, 10, 150.Google Scholar
Kuntsi, J., Rogers, H., Swinard, G., Börger, N., Meere, J.V.D., Rijsdijk, F., & Asherson, P. (2006). Reaction time, inhibition, working memory and delay aversion performance: Genetic influences and their interpretation. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1613–1624.Google Scholar
Lapiz‐Bluhm, M.D.S., Bondi, C.O., Doyen, J., Rodriguez, G.A., Bédard‐Arana, T., & Morilak, D.A. (2008). Behavioural assays to model cognitive and affective dimensions of depression and anxiety in rats. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 20, 1115–1137.Google Scholar
Latzman, R.D., & Markon, K.E. (2010). The factor structure and age-related factorial invariance of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS). Assessment, 17, 172–184.Google Scholar
Lee, K., Bull, R., & Ho, R.M. (2013). Developmental changes in executive functioning. Child Development, 84, 1933–1953.Google Scholar
Lesch, K.P., Bengel, D., Heils, A., Sabol, S.Z., Greenberg, B.D., Petri, S., & Murphy, D.L. (1996). Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science, 274, 1527–1531.Google Scholar
Li, H., Walker, R., & Armstrong, D. (2014). International note: Parenting, academic achievement and problem behaviour among Chinese adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 37, 387–389.Google Scholar
Li, J.J., & Lee, S.S. (2010). Latent class analysis of antisocial behavior: Interaction of serotonin transporter genotype and maltreatment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 789–801.Google Scholar
Li, J.J., Berk, M.S., & Lee, S.S. (2013). Differential susceptibility in longitudinal models of gene–environment interaction for adolescent depression. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 991–1003.Google Scholar
Little, K.Y., McLaughlin, D.P., Zhang, L., Livermore, C.S., Dalack, G.W., McFinton, P.R., & Cook, E.H. (1998). Cocaine, ethanol, and genotype effects on human midbrain serotonin transporter binding sites and mRNA levels. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 207–213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeber, R., Farrington, D.P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Van Kammen, W.B. (1998). Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: Explanatory factors in childhood and adolescence. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Logan, G.D., Schachar, R.J., & Tannock, R. (1997). Impulsivity and inhibitory control. Psychological Science, 8, 60–64.Google Scholar
Logue, S.F., & Gould, T.J. (2014). The neural and genetic basis of executive function: Attention, cognitive flexibility, and response inhibition. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 123, 45–54.Google Scholar
Matthys, W., Vanderschuren, L.J., & Schutter, D.J. (2013). The neurobiology of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: Altered functioning in three mental domains. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 193–207.Google Scholar
Mau, W.C. (1997). Parental influences on the high school students' academic achievement: A comparison of Asian immigrants, Asian Americans, and White Americans. Psychology in the Schools, 34, 267–277.Google Scholar
Mier, D., Kirsch, P., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2010). Neural substrates of pleiotropic action of genetic variation in COMT: A meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 918–927.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N.P., Rettinger, D.A., Shah, P., & Hegarty, M. (2001). How are visuospatial working memory, executive functioning, and spatial abilities related? A latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 621–640.Google Scholar
Monchi, O., Petrides, M., Strafella, A.P., Worsley, K.J., & Doyon, J. (2006). Functional role of the basal ganglia in the planning and execution of actions. Annals of Neurology, 59, 257–264.Google Scholar
Monsell, S. (1996). Control of mental processes. In V. Bruce (Ed.), Unsolved mysteries of the mind: Tutorial essays in cognition (pp 93–148). New York, NY: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Murray, J., & Farrington, D.P. (2010). Risk factors for conduct disorder and delinquency: Key findings from longitudinal studies. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 55, 633–642.Google Scholar
Muthén, B.O., & Muthén, L.K. (2010). Mplus (Version 6). Los Angeles. CA: Muthen & Muthen.Google Scholar
Periáñez, J.A., Maestú, F., Barceló, F., Fernández, A., Amo, C., & Ortiz Alonso, T. (2004). Spatiotemporal brain dynamics during preparatory set shifting: MEG evidence. Neuroimage, 21, 687–695.Google Scholar
Plomin, R., Haworth, C.M., & Davis, O.S. (2009). Common disorders are quantitative traits. Nature Reviews Genetics, 10, 872–878.Google Scholar
Preacher, K.J., Curran, P.J., & Bauer, D.J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448.Google Scholar
Prencipe, A., Kesek, A., Cohen, J., Lamm, C., Lewis, M.D., & Zelazo, P.D. (2011). Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 621–637.Google Scholar
Puig, M.V., & Gulledge, A.T. (2011). Serotonin and prefrontal cortex function: Neurons, networks, and circuits. Molecular Neurobiology, 44, 449–464.Google Scholar
Rankin, B.H., & Quane, J.M. (2002). Social contexts and urban adolescent outcomes: The interrelated effects of neighborhoods, families, and peers on African-American youth. Social Problems, 49, 79–100.Google Scholar
Reif, A., Rösler, M., Freitag, C.M., Schneider, M., Eujen, A., Kissling, C., & Retz, W. (2007). Nature and nurture predispose to violent behavior: Serotonergic genes and adverse childhood environment. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 2375–2383.Google Scholar
Reise, S.P., Morizot, J., & Hays, R.D. (2007). The role of the bifactor model in resolving dimensionality issues in health outcomes measures. Quality of Life Research, 16, 19–31.Google Scholar
Retz, W., Freitag, C.M., Retz-Junginger, P., Wenzler, D., Schneider, M., Kissling, C., & Rösler, M. (2008). A functional serotonin transporter promoter gene polymorphism increases ADHD symptoms in delinquents: Interaction with adverse childhood environment. Psychiatry Research, 158, 123–131.Google Scholar
Roiser, J.P., Rogers, R.D., Cook, L.J., & Sahakian, B.J. (2006). The effect of polymorphism at the serotonin transporter gene on decision-making, memory and executive function in ecstasy users and controls. Psychopharmacology, 188, 213–227.Google Scholar
Satorra, A. (2003). Power of χ2 goodness-of-fit tests in structural equation models: The case of non-normal data. In: New developments in psychometrics (pp. 57–68). Tokyo: Springer.Google Scholar
Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Luyckx, K., & Goossens, L. (2006). Parenting and adolescent problem behavior: An integrated model with adolescent self-disclosure and perceived parental knowledge as intervening variables. Developmental Psychology, 42, 305–318.Google Scholar
Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072–1085.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L., & Silk, J.S. (2002). Parenting adolescents. Handbook of Parenting, 1, 103–133.Google Scholar
Stuss, D.T., & Alexander, M.P. (2000). Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A conceptual view. Psychological Research, 63, 289–298.Google Scholar
Taylor, S.F., Welsh, R.C., Wager, T.D., Luan Phan, K., Fitzgerald, K.D., & Gehring, W.J. (2004). A functional neuroimaging study of motivation and executive function. Neuroimage, 21, 1045–1054.Google Scholar
Tucker‐Drob, E.M., & Harden, K.P. (2012). Intellectual interest mediates Gene× Socioeconomic Status interaction on adolescent academic achievement. Child Development, 83, 743–757.Google Scholar
van der Sluis, S., de Jong, P.F., & van der Leij, A. (2007). Executive functioning in children, and its relations with reasoning, reading, and arithmetic. Intelligence, 35, 427–449.Google Scholar
Walker, S.C., Mikheenko, Y.P., Argyle, L.D., Robbins, T.W., & Roberts, A.C. (2006). Selective prefrontal serotonin depletion impairs acquisition of a detour‐reaching task. European Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 3119–3123.Google Scholar
Wang, Q., Pomerantz, E.M., & Chen, H. (2007). The role of parents’ control in early adolescents’ psychological functioning: A longitudinal investigation in the United States and China. Child Development, 78, 1592–1610.Google Scholar
Weikum, W.M., Brain, U., Chau, C.M., Grunau, R.E., Boyce, W.T., Diamond, A., & Oberlander, T.F. (2013). Prenatal serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) antidepressant exposure and serotonin transporter promoter genotype (SLC6A4) influence executive functions at 6 years of age. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 7, 1–12.Google Scholar
Weiss, L.H., & Schwarz, J.C. (1996). The relationship between parenting types and older adolescents' personality, academic achievement, adjustment, and substance use. Child Development, 67, 2101–2114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wendland, J.R., Martin, B.J., Kruse, M.R., Lesch, K.P., & Murphy, D.L. (2006). Simultaneous genotyping of four functional loci of human SLC6A4, with a reappraisal of 5-HTTLPR and rs25531. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 224–226.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P.D., Craik, F.I., & Booth, L. (2004). Executive function across the life span. Acta Psychologica, 115, 167–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed