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THE PREVENTION AND PROHIBITION OF FORCED MARRIAGES—A COMPARATIVE APPROACH

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 August 2008

Brigitte Clark  and
Claudina Richards
Brigitte Clark
Affiliation:
School of Law, University of East Anglia.
Claudina Richards
Affiliation:
School of Law, University of East Anglia.
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International & Comparative Law Quarterly , Volume 57 , Issue 3 , July 2008 , pp. 501 - 528
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Copyright © 2008 British Institute of International and Comparative Law

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References

1 Y Samad and J Eade, ‘Community Perceptions of Forced Marriage’, 134, <http://www.fco.gov.uk/files/kfile/clureport.pdf>.

2 S Hossain and S Turner, ‘Abduction for Forced Marriage—Rights and Remedies in Bangladesh and Pakistan’ <http://www.soas.ac.uk/honourcrimes/FMarticleHossain.pdf>.

3 In every instance where the word ‘England’ is used, the word ‘Wales’ is obviously included.

4 A An-Na'im, ‘Forced Marriage’, CIMEL and INTERIGHTS ‘Honour’ Crimes Project, <http://www.soas.ac.uk/honourcrimes/FMpaperAnNa'im.htm>.

5 Décision no 93-325 DC of 13 August 1993; Décision no 2003-484 DC of 20 November 2003.

6 Art 146 Code civil.

7 Ministère de la parité et de l'égalité professionnelle and Ministère de la justice, ‘Femmes de l'immigration: Assurer le plein exercice de la citoyenneté à part entière, à parts égales’ (7 March 2005) 15, <http://www.femmes-egalite.gouv.fr/espace_presse/dossiers_2005/docs/rapport_immigration_integral070305.pdf>.

8 Rapport no 2967 of 15 March 2006 by Patrick Delnatte to the Assemblée nationale, <http://www.assembleenationale.fr/12/rapports/r2967.asp>.

9 Home Office Consultation Paper Executive Paper, ‘Forced Marriage—A Wrong Not a Right’ (2005) 7.

10 ibid.

11 An-Na'im (n 4).

12 Haut Conseil à l'Intégration, Le Contrat et l'intégration (La Documentation française, Paris, 2004) 55. See also M Le Bris, ‘Mariages forcés: «les travailleurs sociaux souvent démunis»’ no 231 Actualité sociales hebdomadaires (12 November 2004); ‘Mariages forcés et mariages d'enfants’, Commission sur l'égalité des chances pour les femmes et les hommes, Assemblée parlementaire (Council of Europe), Doc 10590 (20 June 2005). In 2001, the association Voix des Femmes treated 145 situations of forced marriage (Haut Conseil à l'Intégration above, 58); the Turkish women's association, Elele, reports that five cases of forced marriage are denounced each week (Report no 2832 of the Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants to the Assemblée nationale of 25 January 2006, <http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/12/rap-info/i2832.asp#P1658_253815>).

13 Joint Proposal for reform of the Défenseur des Enfants and the Médiateur de la République on consent to marriage and the fight against forced marriages (29 March 2005) <http://www.defenseurdesenfants.fr/pdf/proposition_commune_reforme.pdf>; C Helfter, ‘Une violence qui sort du silence’ no 2242 Actualité sociales hebdomadaires (21 December 2001). The increase in the phenomena has led the Mission Femmes Française, attached to the Ministry of Foreign affairs, to concentrate its activities on combating forced marriages. It has treated 55 cases of threatened forced marriages in two years (Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 12)).

14 Zapfl-Helbling, ‘Mariages forcés et mariages d'enfants’, Commission sur l'égalité des chances pour les femmes et les hommes, Parliamentary Assembly, Council of Europe, Doc 10590 (20 June 2005).

15 Commission sur l'égalité des chances pour les femmes et les hommes (n 12).

16 The influence of British education on the cultural and nationalist heritage of Pakistanis and Bangladeshis is seen in the fact that the younger generation with British education undergo language loss of Urdu, Bengal or Sleety. Sometimes young people use ethnic languages as a symbol of ethnic solidarity, but generally they are less proficient in them than in English. However, although many oral traditions are being lost, there is also the emergence of Muslim identification, which paradoxically becomes prominent as people become British (n 1).

17 (n 12).

18 Le Bris (n 12). See also Directorate General of Human Rights (Council of Europe), ‘Forced Marriages in Council of Europe Member States, A Comparative Study of Legislation and Political Initiatives’ (Strasbourg, 2005) 31.

19 Ministère de la parité et de l'égalité professionelle and Ministère de la justice (n 7).

20 Home Office Consultation Paper (n 9).

21 Criminal Justice Act 1998 s 39.

22 Children and Young Person Act 1933 s 1(1).

23 Education Act 1996 s 444 (1).

24 Child Abduction Act 1984 s 1(1).

25 Sexual Offence Act 1976 s 30 and 31.

26 Common law offence.

27 Art 222-24 11° Code pénal as amended by the Law of 4 April 2006.

28 Art 121-7 Code pénal. See, for example, the decision of the Cour d'assises (reported in Liberation, 1 October 2003, 17) in which a Moroccan man, aged 31, was sentenced to four years' imprisonment for the rape of a woman who was 17 when he married her in 1994. The woman's farther was charged with complicity, and an international arrest warrant was issued against him.

29 Law of 25 April 2007.

30 S 222(2) Norwegian Penal Code.

31 S 240(1) & (4) German Criminal Code as amended in 2005. For a further discussion see Directorate General of Human Rights (Council of Europe) (n 18) 42.

32 Choice by Right Report of the Working Group on Forced Marriage (Home Office, June 2000).

33 Home Office Consultation Paper (n 9). See also (2005) 35 Family Law 919; [2006] 36 Family Law 705.

34 Thirty seven per cent of respondents felt that the Government should not create a specific offence of forcing someone into marriage. Seventy four per cent of police respondents and all Crown Prosecution and Probation Service respondents were of the view that the existing legislation was sufficient to tackle the issues. Thirty four per cent of respondents argued that the Government should create a specific criminal offence of forced marriage and children's and young people's services made up the majority of this group. The majority of the respondents felt that the disadvantages of creating new legislation would outweigh the advantages. See (2006) 36 Family Law 705.

35 Liberty, ‘Liberty's Response to the Joint Home Office and Foreign & Commonwealth Office Consultation on Forced Marriage’ (December 2005) <http://www.liberty-human-rights.org.uk/resources/policy-papers/2005/forced-marriage-consultation.PDF>.

36 ibid.

37 See <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/5054286.stm>(accessed 5 June 2006).

38 Art 222-9 Code pénal.

39 A leading academic in French family law.

40 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants, Report no 2832 (n 12).

41 A professor specializing in French family law.

42 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants, Report no 2832 (n 12).

43 Ministère de la parité et de l'égalité professionelle and Ministère de la justice (n 7) 23. It proposes inserting into the Criminal Code an Article 225-12-8, ‘On forced marriage’, which would provide: ‘The fact of compelling a person, by violence, threats of violence, the exercise of serious or repeated pressure, or by using means to alter their consent, to contract a civil or traditional marriage is punishable by 3 years of imprisonment and 45,000 euros fine. Where the facts are committed against a minor, the sanctions are 5 years imprisonment and 75,000 euros fine.’ (Authors' translation.)

44 Statement by Y Lambert, Directrice SOS Femmes (personal email correspondance, 10 April 2006). See also C Lesselier, president of Réseau pour l'autonomie des femmes immigrées before the Délégation aux Droits Des Femmes et à l'Egalité des Chances enter les Hommes et Les Femmes, Compte Rendu no 19 (7 June 2005); M Huret, ‘Un plan contre les mariages forcés’ L'Express (24 November 2005).

45 Mouvement Français pour le Planning Familial, ‘Réflexion sur la problématique des mariages forcés’ (December 2005), <http://www.planning-familial.org/documentation/Documents/mariage.pdf>.

46 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants, ‘Note d’étape sur la lutte contre les mariages forcés' (23 November 2005) <http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/12/dossiers/mission_famille_enfants_note_etape2.pdf>.

47 Mouvement Français pour le Planning Familial (n 45).

48 ibid.

49 ibid.

50 Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007.

51 Article 144 Code civil.

52 A member of the judiciary who acts for the public interest and represents the State in civil and criminal cases at first instance.

53 Article 145 Code civil. According to the Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants, in 2002 469 people below the age of 18 married—460 young girls, of whom two were under 15; and 9 boys, aged 17 (n 46).

54 See eg, Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 46); Ministère de la parité et de l'égalité professionelle and Ministère de la justice (n 7) 21.

55 See eg, United Nations' Committee on the Rights of the Child in April 1994 (CRC/C/3/Add.20;§22) and June 2004 (CRC/C/15/Add.240; §4).

56 Law of 17 March 1803.

57 Ministère de la parité et de l'égalité professionnelle and Ministère de la justice (n 7) 21.

58 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 12).

59 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 46). The French law fell within the scope of what the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe called ‘child marriages’ in Resolution 1468 (2005) and which it called all Members States to end. In the reasons for the draft resolution it was noted that for boys and girls, a young marriage can have serious physical, intellectual, psychological and emotional consequences (Commission sur l'égalité des chances pour les femmes et les hommes (n 12)). It was considered that even if a child has reached the age of sexual consent, this does not mean that they are necessarily mature enough for marriage; there is a distinction to be made between the age of sexual maturity and that of matrimonial consent. Dekeuwer-Défossez has also noted that in reality, in order to appreciate the capacity of future spouses to contract marriage, psychological maturity appears more important than the ability to have conjugal relations (F Dekeuwer-Défossez, Rénover le droit de la famille, proposition pour un droit adapté aux réalités et aux aspirations de notre temps (La Documentation Française, Paris 1999) 111).

60 Law no 2006-399 of 4 April 2006.

61 Art 144 Code civil.

62 Report no 2726 of 7 December 2005 by Guy Geoffroy to Assemblée nationale.

63 Art 148 Code civil.

64 ibid.

65 Joint Proposal for reform of the Défenseur des Enfants and the Médiateur de la République (n 13).

66 Art 63(1) Code civil.

67 Report no 1 of 1 October 2003 by Jean-Patrick Courtois to Sénat <http://www.senat.fr/rap/l03-001/l03-001.html>.

68 ibid. The General Instructions relating to the register of births, deaths and marriages stated that the registrar had no competence to carry out any investigations beforehand to ensure the legality or sincerity of the declarations of those appearing before them (L'instruction générale relative à l'état civil, no 95).

69 Law no 2003-1119 of 26 November 2003.

70 Art 63 (2) Code civil.

71 Art 63 (3) Code civil.

72 Law no 2006-1376 of 14 November 2006.

73 Art 63 (4) Code civil.

74 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants report (n 12) (Lepetit, head of the legal section of the association ‘Ni putes, ni soumises’).

75 ibid.

76 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 46); Joint Proposal for reform of the Défenseur des Enfants and the médiateur de la République (n 13).

77 ibid.

78 Art 3 Law of 4 April 2006.

79 Circular of the Minister of Justice relating to the fight against fictitious and arranged marriages of 2 May 2005, CIV/09/05.

80 Art 175-2 Code civil. This provision was initially introduced by Law no 93-1417 of 30 December 1993 but without reference to interviewing the spouses as at this time registrars had no power to interview the future spouses. Law no 2003-1119 of 26 November 2003 added ‘le cas échéant au vue de l'audition prévue par l'article 63’.

81 Art 175-1 Code civil.

82 The registrar and the future spouses must be informed of this by means of a reasoned decision. The enquiry and consequent suspension of the marriage can last up to one month from the decision of suspension, renewable once.

83 Court of first instance with general jurisdiction over civil cases. The court must give a ruling within 10 days.

84 Arts 63 and 64 Code civil. The marriage must take place within a year of the ending of the publication of the banns, or new banns will be necessary (Art 65 Code civil).

85 See Arts 172–79 Code civil.

86 It is also possible for anyone to inform the registrar by way of an unofficial notice, avis officieux, of a reason why the marriage should not be celebrated. Whilst this has no legal effect, registrars are advised in such cases to inform the procureur who can formally oppose the marriage where deemed necessary (Instruction générale relative à l'état civil no 345).

87 Art 176 (2) Code civil. It is not possible for family members to renew their opposition if there has been a court decision removing the opposition (Art 173(2) Code civil).

88 Exposé des motifs, projet de loi no 2838 relating to the control of the validity of marriages, <http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/12/projets/pl2838.asp>.

89 Loi no 2006-1376 of 14 November 2006. See Art 176 Code civil.

90 Arts 375–375-8 Code civil and Arts 1181–1200-1 Nouveau Code de procédure civile.

91 A member of the judiciary specialized in civil and criminal cases involving children.

92 Around 900 requests are made per year by minors themselves, A Bénabent, Droit civil: la famille (11th edn Litec, Paris, 2003) 526.

93 Who has been informed by the social services or other means.

94 Loi no 74-631 of 5 July 1974.

95 A parent may also make a request for an interdiction de sortie du territoire for their child.

96 Statement by Justine Rocherieux of Groupe pour l'abolition des mutilations sexuelles (Personal email correspondence, 17 July 2006).

97 <http://www.sosfemmes.com/points_de_vue/sujets/03_mariage_force.htm>.

98 Statement by Justine Rocherieux (n 96).

99 <http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/FFE_MAJ0306.pdf>.

100 ibid. The most accessible information and advice in this respect appears to be the leaflets and websites produced by a number of women's groups and associations who also offer support for girls and women in this situation, eg Voix de femmes, SOS Femmes Accueil, and GAMS.

101 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 12).

102 Ministère de la parité et de l'égalité professionnelle and Ministère de la justice (n 7).

103 Joint Proposal for reform of the Défenseur des Enfants and the Médiateur de la République (n 13).

104 ibid.

105 See Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 s 12.

106 See Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 s 12(c).

107 Swedish Marriage Code, chapter 2, s 1 (in force 1 May 2004) which prescribes that those who are under the age of 18 may not get married without the permission of the county administrative board. No one under the age of 18 may enter into a marriage before a Swedish authority without a special permit and the conditions for such permit have become more stringent. A new rule has also been introduced through this legislation clarifying and improving the power to refuse recognition of a foreign marriage that has been entered into under compulsion or which would not have been allowed upon consideration of compulsion or the impediments to marriage in Sweden. Control of persons authorized to officiate at weddings has been improved. If a consideration of the impediments to marriage has not been conducted, this may entail disciplinary liability, dismissal or notification to the public prosecutor. In Sweden it is also possible to obtain a divorce without a preceding period for reconsideration where a marriage if entered into under force or in violation of that requirement. In such cases the public prosecutor may bring an action for divorce. See A Saldeen, ‘Legislation on Forced Marriage in Intercountry Adoption’ in A Bainham (ed), International Survey of Family Law (Jordan Publishing, Bristol, 2006) 439, 441.

108 Drafted by Lord Lester with advice from organizations such as the Southall Black Sisters and a team of family lawyers with practical experience of dealing with forced marriage, the Bill was supported by many groups, including the Family Law Bar Association and Liberty.

109 Sections 63A–63S.

110 S63B(1) and 63B(2)(a). The Act is specially extended to Northern Ireland but not to Scotland. It is to be hoped that the Scottish Parliament will see fit to enact legislation in the same terms.

111 S63C(2)(b).

112 S 63C(7)(c).

113 S 63C(3). See Consultation Paper ‘Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007—Relevant Third Party’ at http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/cp3107.htm—(14 March 2008) 13.

114 S 63C(5)–(6).

115 See Consultation Paper ‘Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007—Relevant Third Party’ at http://www.justice.gov.uk/publicationscp3107.htm 14.

116 See Consultation Paper ‘Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007—Relevant Third Party’ at http://www.justice.gov.uk/publicationscp3107.htm 15.

117 S 63D (1).

118 S 63H.

119 S 63I(2).

120 See Marriage Act 1949.

121 Marriage Act 1949 amended s 27(1).

122 Marriage Act, as amended ss 27(1) and (3). Marriage Act as amended s 28(1).

123 Marriage Act 1949 s 31.

124 Marriage Act 1949 s 6 and s 7.

125 Children Act 1989 s 44.

126 Children Act 1989 s 31 and s 38.

127 Children Act 1989 s 8.

128 In certain cases, the High Court can make a child a ward on its own motion, without anyone applying for wardship (R v N Yorkshire CC, Ex Partner M (No 3) [1989] 2 FLR 82).

129 Re KR (a Child) (Abduction: Forcible Removal by Parents) [1999] 2 FLR 542; see also NS v MI [2006] EWHC 1646 (Fam), [2007] 1 FLR 444.

130 See P v P (Forced Marriage: Annulment: Procedure) [2003] 1 FLR 661.

131 See Re SK (Proposed Plaintiff) (An Adult by way of her Litigation Friend) [2005] 2 FLR 230, paras 8–9.

132 See Re C (Mental Patient: Contact) [1993] 1 FLR 940, 944.

133 See Re SA (Vulnerable Adult with Capacity): Marriage [2006] 1 FLR 867.

134 ibid paras 77, 78 and 83.

135 See (n 112) paras 105, 106, 109.

136 Section 63C(2)(b); S63C(3); S63C(7)(a). See Consultation Paper 3107, ‘Forced Marriage (Civil Protection Act 2008)—The Relevant Third Party’ (March 2008) at http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/cp3107.htm.

137 ibid para 4.4.

138 ibid para 4.12. See also S Cretney, Family Law in the Twentieth Century: A History (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003) 37.

139 See ‘Just Cause or Impediment?’ A Report from the Review of aspect of Marriage Law working Group (General Synod of the Church of England, 2001) para 11.

140 Matrimonial Causes Act and the Marriage Act 1949 s 11 and 12.

141 There were 436 petitions for annulment in 2005. (See Department of Constitutional Affairs (2006) Judicial Statistics TSO.)

142 See Munby J in NS v MI [2006] EWHC 1646 (Fam), [2007] 1 FLR 444.

143 Art 5 Law of 4 April 2006.

144 See Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 s 12(c).

145 See Szechter v Szechter [1971] P 286; see also Buckland v Buckland [1968] P 296. The threat does not need to emanate from the respondent spouse but may proceed from another source.

146 Singh v Singh [1971] P 226.

147 Singh v Kaur (1981) Fam Law 152.

148 Hirani v Hirani [1982] 4 FLR 232.

149 ibid.

150 Matrimonial Causes Act s 12(c).

151 (n 136). See also NS v MI [2006] EWHC 1646 (Fam), [2007] 1 FLR 444—a suit for nullity in a case where it was said that a purported marriage was voidable on the grounds of duress. The petitioner argued that she was forced into the marriage. Munby J found that she was, and that she was entitled to a decree of nullity.

152 Art 180 Code civil.

153 Art 180(1) Code civil. The sanction is ‘nullité relative’, annulment which must be requested by the victim of the vitiated consent, ie the spouse protected by the law. The burden of proof lies with the victim requesting the annulment. Cass 1er civ, 4 juillet 1995.

154 Art 1114 Code civil.

155 See Paris, 9 janvier 1996, RTD civ 1996, 365, obs Hauser, in which the evidence from the registrar who celebrated the marriage stated that at the time of the exchange of consent the future wife hesitated before saying ‘yes’, having said ‘I will think’, then ‘I do not want to marry this man who is already annoying me’, and finally it was only after a person present spoke to her in Turkish that she said ‘unfortunately yes’. For the most recent case concerning a request for an annulment of a marriage due to lack of consent see Cour d'appel de Colmar of 28 April 2005.

156 Jean Hauser, Juris Classeur Droit civil: Fasc 10.

157 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 12).

158 Art 5 Law of 4 April 2006.

159 Art 3 Law of 4 April 2006.

160 Art 181 Code civil. The cohabitation of 6 months was considered to constitute tacit confirmation, Bordeaux, 21 December 1954, D, 1955, 242, note Esmein.

161 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 46); see also Commission nationale consultative des droits de l'homme, Avis sur les mariages forcés (23 June 2005) <http://www.commission-droits-homme.fr/binTravaux/AffichageAvis.cfm?IDAVIS=746&iClasse=0>.

162 Art 6 Law no 2006-399 of 4 April 2006. This brings the time period in line with that of the general law of contracts set at five years by Art 1304 Code civil.

163 Report no 160 of 18 January 2006 by Henri de Richemont to Sénat <http://www.senat.fr/rap/l05-160/l05-160.html>.

164 ibid.

165 See Haut Conseil à l'Intégration (n 12) 66, Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 46) and Joint Proposal for reform of the Défenseur des Enfants and the Médiateur de la République (n 13).

166 Art 184 Code civil. The other reasons being when one of the spouses was not of an age to marry, was not present in person at the ceremony, in the case of bigamy or of kinship of a degree prohibited between spouses.

167 Art 5 Law of 4 April 2006.

168 S 63A(1)(b).

169 S 63B(1) and (2).

170 The marriage of two French people may be celebrated by French diplomatic or consular authorities. A marriage between a French national and a foreigner is only possible before a French diplomatic or consular agent in certain countries (Art 171-1 (3) Code civil), the décret of 26 October 1939 and the décret of 15 December 1958 list Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, China, Egypt, Irak, Iran, Japan, Morocco, Oman, Thailand, Yemen, Laos and Cambodia.

171 Art 171-1 (2) Code civil.

172 Report no 492 of J-R Lecerf on 27 September 2006 to the Sénat—marriages between French nationals before an embassy or consular authority account for less than 1 per cent of marriages of French people abroad.

173 Art 171-1 (1) Code civil. This marriage will be valid under French law as long as it has been concluded in accordance with the requirements of the country where the marriage was celebrated and the French national satisfies the French legal requirements as to a person's qualities and condition to marry, such as age, free consent and attending the marriage in person. See eg Civ 1er, 29 septembre 2004 for a marriage celebrated by two French nationals in Las Vegas, USA.

174 Ex Article 170 (1) Code civil, now repealed.

175 Loi no 2003-1119 of 26 November 2003.

176 Report no 949 of 18 June 2003 by Thierry Mariani to Assemblée nationale <http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/12/rapports/r0949/asp>

177 Report no 1 of 1 Octobre 2003 by Jean-Patrick Courtois to Sénat.

178 ibid.

179 Loi no 93-1027 of 24 August 1993.

180 Haut Conseil à l'Intégration (n 12) 57.

181 ibid 56.

182 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 13). Most requests for the intervention of the procureur come from the French posts in Morocco and Turkey (Journal Officiel, 17 February 2005).

183 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits de enfants (n 12).

184 In a written question to the French Foreign minister, Jean-Guy Branger expressed concern that, during a meeting on 18 October 2004 of the Committee on Equal opportunities for Women and Men of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, evidence was given of ‘so-called’ marriages concluded by the simple agreement between families, without the presence of the ‘spouses’, being transcribed by French consulates, notably in Morocco, on the mere presentation of documents containing signatures, the authenticity of which could not be verified (Journal Officiel, 17 February 2005). It was also noted in the Report of the Commission for equality of chances for women and men of the parliamentary assembly of the Council of Europe, that when a young girl is married before the Moroccan authorities, the transcription by the French consulate in Morocco can take place in the absence of the young woman (Commission sur l'égalitédes chances pour les femmes et les hommes (n 12)).

185 (n 169).

186 ibid.

187 Art 313-11 (4) Code de l'entrée et du séjour des étangers et du droit d'asile, prior to the reform of 2006.

188 Art 21-2 Code civil, prior to the reform of 2006.

189 Loi no 2006-1376 of 14 November 2006 which entered into force on 1 March 2007. The law was declared compatible with the Constitution in Decision no 2006-542 DC of 9 November 2006.

190 Art 171-2 Code civil.

191 ibid.

192 Art 171-3 Code civil. Since the law of April 2006, diplomatic and consular agents can delegate the interviews to one or more civil servants. If one of the future spouses resides in another country, they can ask the French registrar of that country to undertake the interview.

193 Art 171-4 Code civil. The diplomatic or consular authority must inform the procureur without delay and the interested parties must be notified of this.

194 ibid.

195 Art 171-5 Code civil. The diplomatic authority with jurisdiction where the marriage was celebrated is responsible for transcribing the marriage onto the register.

196 Art 171-5 Code civil.

197 Art 171-6 Code civil.

198 Art 171-7 Code civil.

199 Art 171-7 Code civil.

200 Art 171-8 Code civil.

201 Décret no 2005-170 of 23 February 2005, with effect from 1 March 2005, relating to the application of articles 47 and 170-1 Code Civil, which introduced art 1056-1 into Nouveau Code de procédure civile.

202 Jurisdiction related to the residence of the spouse, Paris if both reside abroad.

203 Ministère de la parité et de l'égalité professionnelle and Ministère de la justice (n 8.) 21.

204 ibid.

205 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 13).

206 See French Ministry of Foreign Affairs website <http://www.mfe.org/?SID=12345>.

207 Mission d'information sur la famille et les droits des enfants (n 13).

208 <http://www.fco.gov.uk/Files/KFile/Forced%20Marriage%20Leaflet.pdf>. See also A Frean, ‘Britons who are forced into marriage, Times Online, 30 August 2006 <http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-2334505.html>.

209 The Action Plan is fully discussed at <http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029395717>.

210 ibid.

211 ibid.

212 See Hansard cols 1320–22 (26 July 2007).

213 Choice by Right (n 32) 140.

214 Samad and Eade (n 1) 102.

215 The caste system continues to exist for many South Asian families living in Britain. This system greatly values and emphasizes the importance of zat (caste) and Izzat (Honour). The role of mothers is another factor in many South Asian communities and the shame (Sharm) brought upon a house if a women leaves it; see 4 Ralston (n 213).

216 See H Ralston, ‘Arranged, semi-arranged and “love” marriage among South Asian immigrant women in the Diaspora and their non-migrant sister in India and Fiji: a comparative study’ (1997) 27 International Journal of Sociology of the Family 43.

217 An-Na'im (n 5).

218 See, for example in Norway where the practice has been criminalized. In the first case brought under the new legislation, the victim herself did not report the crime and as a result of the conviction and imprisonment of two members of her family, she lives in constant terror of their ultimate release and the vengeance which they may exact from her (N Berglund, ‘Court cracks down on forced marriage’ Aftenposten (23 May 2005) <http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article1044225.ece>).

219 See A Local Authroty v NY and K [2005] EWHC 2956.

220 See (n 110).

221 S 63M(1).

222 S 63C(2)(b). See Consultation Paper 3107 ‘Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007—The Relevant Third Party’ (2008) at http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/cp3107.htm.

223 S 63C(6).