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The Legal Recognition of Same-Sex Couples—The French Perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 January 2008

Claudina Richards
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Legislative reforms have been introduced in several European states to tackle the question of the legal recognition of same-sex relations, with the Nordic countries taking the lead.1 Changes in the attitude of the general public towards gays and lesbians, as demonstrated by the publicity and popularity of Gay Pride marches throughout Europe, has brought the issue to the fore of the political and legal arenas. France has been no exception, with the public debate on the recognition of same-sex couples culminating in the recent adoption of the law relating to the Pacte Civil de Solidarité (PACS) which provides for the registration of a couple's partnership regardless of sex.

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Articles
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International & Comparative Law Quarterly , Volume 51 , Issue 2 , April 2002 , pp. 305 - 324
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Copyright © British Institute of International and Comparative Law 2002

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References

1 Denmark, Registered Partnership Act of 7 June 1989; Norway, Registered Partnership Act of 30 Apr 1993; Sweden, Registered Partnership Act of 23 June 1994; Iceland, Registered Partnership Law of 12 June 1996; the Netherlands, Law of 5 July 1997.

2 For sanctions for male homosexuality under the Ancien Droit see Garçon, Code pénal annoté, 1956, livre III, s IV, Arts 331–3, n°181+s.

3 Lesbian activities were not covered by the law. See Lascoumes, , ‘L'homosexualité entre crime à la loi naturelle et expression de la liberté’, in Borrillo, , Homosexualités et droit (Paris: Presse Universitaire de France, 1998), at 109.Google Scholar

4 Mariée, ‘L'homosexualité, cause de répression pénale’, Petites Affiches, 10 août 1994, 33.

5 Ordonnance of 6 Aug 1942 adding Art 334 to the Ancien Code pénal.

6 Moved to Art 331 Ancien Code pénal.

7 Art 330 Ancien Code penal. A law of 1974 did however lower the age of majority for all from 21 to 18.

8 Law of 4 Aug 1982, Journal officiel 5 août 1982. See Jestaz, Revue trimestrielle de droit civil (1982), 795.

9 Art 225–1 Nouveau Code pénal, and Art L122–45 and L122–35 Code du travail.

10 Leroy-Forgeot, , Histoire juridique de l'homosexualité en Europe (Paris: Presse Universitaire de France, 1997).Google Scholar

11 ‘La loi ne considère le mariage que comme un contrat civil’, Constitution of 1791.

12 Art 146 Code civil.

13 See, eg, Rubellin-Devichi, Droit de la famille (Paris: Dalloz, 1999), at 12 and 65; Malaurie, Aynès, Droit civil, lafamille (Paris: CUJAS, 1993) at 73 and Terré, Fenouillet, Droit civil (Paris: Dalloz, 1996). For an alternative interpretation see Borrillo, Schulz, Vers la reconnaissance des couples de même sexe (Aides Fédération Nationale, 1997).

14 Cass. 6 avril 1903, DP, 1904,1, 395. This decision has been applied since, eg, Cour d'appel de Paris, 8 déc. 1967, JCP, 1968, II, no 15518 bis.

15 Moutouh, ‘La question de la reconnaissance du couple homosexuel: entre dogmatisme et empirisme’, Dalloz, 1998, Chron, 369; see also Mécary, , Droit et homosexualite (Paris: Dalloz, 2000). Cf Malaurie, above, n 13, 74.Google Scholar

16 See, eg, Terré, Fenouillet, above, n 13.

17 Carbonnier, , Terre et del dans le droit français du marriage, in Etude, Ripert (Paris: LGDJ, 1950), 334.Google Scholar

18 Borrillo, , ‘Fantasmes des juristes vs Ratio juris: la doxa des privatistes sur l'union entre personnes de meme sexe’, in Au-delà du PaCS, L'expertise familiale à l'épreuve de l'homosexualité (Paris: PUF, 1999).Google Scholar

19 Lochak, , ‘Egalités et différence, réflexions sur 1'universalité de la règle de droit’, in Homosexualités et Droit (Paris: PUF, 1998), 39.Google Scholar

20 Baehr v Lewin, 85.P.2d.

21 Loving v Virginia, 388 US 1(1967).

22 17 Oct 1986, Series A, vol 106.

23 27 Sept 1990, Series A, no 184.

24 Borrillo, Schulz, above, n 13.

25 Such a religious wedding could be annulled by an ecclesiastic court. See L'homosexuel(le) duns les sociétés civiles et religieuses (Strasbourg: Cerdic, 1985).Google Scholar

26 Mécary, above, n 15, at 119.

27 Minister of Justice, Jacques Toubon, replying to M. Retailleau, JOAN 9 déc. 1996, 6482.

28 Discussion with J-P Poulinquen of the Collectif pour le contrat d'union sociale et le Pacte civil de solidarité <http://www.club-internet.fr/perso/ccucs>.

29 Mécary, above, n 15, at 121.

30 Art 364 Code civil.

31 Art 343–1 (1) Code civil, as amended by law of 5 July 1996.

32 Art 344(1) Civil code. The court may however, if there are just reasons, pronounce the adoption when the difference in ages is less than fifteen years (Art 344(2) Code civil).

33 Art 353 (1) Civil code.

34 Raynaud, ‘Un abus de l'adoption simple. Les couples adoptifs’, D, 1983, Chron, 39.

35 Art 368(1) Civil code.

36 Art 367 Code civil. ‘Adoption simple’ creates additional effects, for example it confers the surname of the adopter to the person being adopted by adding it to the surname of the latter (Art 363 Code civil). Furthermore, it confers parental authority over the person being adopted to the adopter (Art 365 Code civil).

37 Riom, 9 July 1981, JCP 1982.II.19799, note Almairac.

38 TGI Paris, 3 février 1982, D, 1983, II, 40 and TGI Paris, 3 novembre 1982, D, 1983, II, 41.

39 It is interesting to note that once an adoption simple has been permitted by the court, it is not possible for the adopter to invoke the fact that the persons concerned were having a true conjugal relationship in order to obtain a revocation of the adoption when the other fails to give him or her affection and material assistance. Cour d'appel de Paris, 9 Janvier 1993, RTD civ, avril-juin 1993, 340.

40 Cour de cassation 8 juin 1999, RTD civ 1999, 610, obs. Hauser.

41 CA Versailles, ler ch, 4 novembre 1999, Droit de la famille, déc 2000, 15, note Murat.

42 D, 1983, Chron., 39.

43 Denis, D, 1986, juris, 380. This also finds support in Nerson, Rubellin-Devichi ‘Des détournements de l'adoption’, RTD civ 1984, 303 at 307.

44 ‘Puisque les concubins se désintéressent de la loi, la loi n'a qu' à se désintéresser d'eux.’

45 This original stance was set out in Cass civ ler, 27 July 1937, DP, 1938.1.5. note Savatier. ‘Le concubinage demeure, en toute occurrence, quelles que soient ses modalites et sa durrée, une situation de fait qui ne saurait être génératrice de droits au profit des concubins et vis-à-vis des tiers.’

46 Ch Mixte, 27 Feb 1970, D, 1970, 201, note Combaldieu.

47 Art L161–14 Code de Sécurité sociale.

48 Art 885E Code général des impôts.

49 Art 14 of law of 6 July 1989.

50 X v Air France, and Mme X v Caisseprimaire d'assurance maladie de Nantes et autre, Cass. 11 juillet 1989, D. 1990, II, 582.

51 ‘[C]onjoints mariés et aux concubins en union libre.’

52 ‘[L]a personne qui vit maritalement avec un assuré social’, Art 13 of the law of 2 Jan 1978.

53 Cass 17 dec 1997, D, 1998, Juris, 111, concl. Weber; see also Djigo, JCP, II 10093, n° 24, 1998.

54 The tribunal d'instance du 4e arrondissement de Paris, unpublished; cited by Avocat général Weber in his submissions for Vilela v Mme Weil.

55 Other courts of first instance also reached similar conclusions; Tribunal d'instance, 12 Sept 1995 and Tribunal d'instance de Toulouse, 20 Sept 1996, both unpublished but cited in Mécary, Pradelle, De La, Les Droits des homosexuel/les, Que sais-je? (Paris: PUF, 1998).Google Scholar

56 For a comment on the position of the House of Lords in similar circumstances see, Bailey-Harris, ‘Fitzpatrick v Sterling Housing Association Ltd’ (2000) 30 Family Law 14.

57 See Malaurie, D, 1990, Juris, 582.

58 Aubert, D, 1998, Juris, 111.

59 Mécary, above, n 15.

60 Denis, above, n 43.

61 TGI Belfort, 25 July 1995, JCP 1996.I.3903, n° 3, note Mattei.

62 See Kobina Gaba ‘Le droit de la responsabilité civile au regard de l'homosexualité, 21 & 22 juillet 2000, Gazette du Palais, 5.

63 Le Monde, 26 Sept 1995, 21 and Le Monde, 28 June 1997, 10.

64 Mécary, De La Pradelle, above, n 55, at 78; Weber, above, n 53; ‘Droits des homosexuels: limites et progres’, Regards sur l'actualité, no 247, janv 1999, 15.

65 Replies to written parliamentary question n° 58529, from M. Sautier, JOAN, Q, 18 fév 1985, 683 and n° 40233, from M. Mariani, JOAN, Q, 2 septembre 1996, 4712.

66 Le Monde, 22 June 1996, 10.

67 Resolution on equal rights for homosexuals and lesbians in the EC of 7 Feb 1994, OJEC, No C 61/40, 28 Feb 1994. A similar resolution was also adopted in 1998.

68 Discours de Madame Elisabeth Guigou, Assemblee nationale, 3 novembre 1998 <http://www.justice.gouv.fr/discours/d041198b.htm>.

69 The provisions which were not reinstated concerned the application of the law to the French overseas territories and the extension of certain consequences of the PACS to siblings.

70 Décision 99–419 DC of 9 Nov 1999. JO 16 nov 1999, 16962.

71 President Chirac had attacked the PACS in a letter to the President of l'Union Nationale des Associations Familiales which was made public on 5 Nov 1999.

72 Art 515–1 Code civil.

73 Discours de Mme Guigou, 30 mars 1999, ‘une communauté de toit … une communauté de lit’ <www.justice.gouv.fr/discours/d300399-2.htm>.

74 Above, n 70, at para 28.

75 Art 506–1 Code civil. Fossiers,‘Le pacte civile de solidarité et les majeurs protégés’, JCP, 2001, I, 293.

76 This would cover grandparents and grandchildren, parents and children, brothers and sisters, aunts or uncles and nephews or nieces, and parents-in-law and daughters or sons-in-law.

77 Art 515–2 Code civil.

78 Above, n 70, at paras 26 and 55.

79 Above, n 70, at para 27.

80 Millbank, and Sant, , ‘A bride in her every-day clothes: same-sex relationship recognition in NSW’ (2000) 22 Sydney Law Review 181.Google Scholar

81 Art 515–3 Code civil.

82 Le Monde, 13 Oct 1999. The Observatoire du PaCS highlighted the fact that the mairie deals not only with the celebration of marriages but all other registry matters (Rapport, mars 1999). In addition they claim that the Socialist Party chose not to mention that the mayors who threatened not to implement the PACS were in the minority.

83 Décret n° 99–1089, JO n° 298 of 24 Dec 1996, 19216.

84 It is the registration by the court clerk which gives the contract its date and makes it enforceable against third parties, not the date on which the PACS was drafted or registered with a notary. Reply of Minister of Justice, Rép min. n° 47664, JO AN Q, 23 Oct 2000, 6134.

85 Art 515–4 Code civil.

86 Art 212 Code civil.

87 Above, n 70, at para 31.

88 Ibid.

89 ‘Indivision par moitié’ is governed by Art 815 Code civil.

90 See Art 534 Code civil.

91 Art 515–5 Code civil.

92 Lemouland ‘Présentation de la loi n°99–944 du 15 novembre 1999 relative au pacte civil de solidarité, D, 1999, 483. See also Flour, ‘Bréves remarques sur l'indivision entre partenaires d'un pacte civil de solidarité, Gazette du palais, 5 & 6 mars 1999, 2.

93 Art 514–4 para 2 Code civil. See Pierre, ‘La solidarité passive des partenaires du Pacs’, Droit de la famille, juillet-août 2000, 8.

94 Art 220 Code civil provides for joint liability of married couples for debts incurred for the upkeep of the household or the education of the children.

95 Art 220 Code civil. See Alleaume, ‘Solidarité contre solidarité: Etude comparative des avantages respectifs du marriage et du PACS au regard du droit du crédit’, D, 2000, Chron., 150, and Pierre, ‘La solidarité passive des partenaires du PACS’, Droit de la famille, juillet-août 2000, 8.

96 Above, n 70, at para 33.

97 Art 6–1 para 3 Code général des impots. For the effects of the ending of the PACS, marriage and death of one partner see Art 6–7 Code général des impôts. See Douet, ‘Les apports du pacte civil de solidarité sur la situation fiscale des concubins ou les charmes fiscaux discrets du pacte civil de solidarité, Droit de la famille, déc 1999, 37.

98 Art 885A Code général des impôts.

99 Art 1723 ter-00B Code général des impôts.

100 Art 779-III Code général des impôts. The allowance for spouses since 1 Jan 2000 is 500 000 Francs (Art 779-I CGI).

101 Art 777 bis Code général des impôts.

102 Art 777 bis para 2 Code général des impôts. Between spouses the rate of taxation is 5–40 per cent on the taxable net part. This rate is applied according to the size of the inheritance (Art 777 CGI).

103 Art L361–4 Code de la sécurité sociale.

104 Art 14 of law n°89–462 of 6 July 1989.

105 Art L161–14 para 1 Code de la sécurité sociale.

106 Art L523–2 Code de la sécurité sociale.

107 Art L356–3 para 1 Code de la sécurité sociale.

108 Art L223–7 Code du travail.

109 Art L226–1 para 4 Code du travail.

110 Art L226–1 para 2 Code du travail.

111 Art L784–1 Code du travail.

112 Arts 60 and 62 Loi n° 84–16 of 11 Jan 1984, Art 54 Loi n° 84–53 of 26 Jan 1984, Art 38 Loi n° 86–33 of 9 Jan 1986.

113 See Fulchiron, ‘Le PACS et le droit des étrangers’, Droit de la famille, déc 1999, 44.

114 Arts 21–2 and 26–1 and s Code civil.

115 Observatoire du Pacs, above, n 82, at 6.

116 Art 15 Loi n° 99–944 of 15 Nov 1999 relative au pacte civil de solidarité.

117 Above, n 70, at para 74.

118 Art 15 Loi n° 99–944.

119 Opinion of 25 Nov 1999.

120 Décret n° 99–1090, JO n° 298, 24 Dec 1999, 19217. The Conseil d'Etat rejected an action seeking judicial review of the décret brought by the Conseil national des barreaux and the Conseil supérieur de l'administration des biens (D, 2001, Juris, 959).

121 Art 5 of décret n° 9–1090.

122 Douvier and Bouché, ‘PACS’, IBA Section on Legal Practice, Estate Planning, Sept 2000, 9.

123 Cases C-122/99 P & C-125/99 P.

124 Art 515–7 Code civil.

125 Above, n 70, at para 61.

126 Ibid, paras 62 and 69; see also Rép. Ministérielle n° 19847 JOAN Q 8 mars 1999, 1436.

127 Art 515–7 para 8 Code civil.

128 Art 515–7 Code civil.

129 Above, n 70, at para 70.

130 Ibid.

131 Ibid, para 62.

132 Art 515–8 Code civil.

133 See, eg, L161–14 Code de la sécurité sociale.

134 Benoît, ‘Aspects sociaux’, Droit de la famille, déc 1999, 42.

135 Emphasis added.

136 Alleaume, ‘Solidarité contre solidaritée’, D, 2000, 450.

137 Mme Guigou, above, n 68.

138 Ibid.

139 Théry, ‘Le contrat d'union civile en question’, Esprit, octobre 1997.

140 Observatoire du PACS, above, n 82.

141 Bach-Ignasse, Roussel, Le pacs juridique etpratique (Paris: Denoël, 2000) at 156. See also Stychin, ‘Civil Solidarity or Fragmented Identities? The Politics of Sexuality and Citizenship in France’ (2001) 10(3) Social & Legal Studies 347.

142 Rapport d'information de MM Bloche et Michel sur l'application de la loi no 99–944 <http//www.assemblee-nationale.fr/rap-info/i3383.asp>. The report states that 43970 PACS had been concluded by 30 Sept 2001.

143 Bach-Ignasse, Roussel, above, n 141, at 91.

144 D, 1997, Juris. 118.

145 Malaurie, Droit de la famille, déc 1999, 30.

146 Law of 1 Augt 2000 concerning the freedom of communication and law adopted on 6 Nov 2001 against discrimination, including sexual orientation.

147 Le Monde, 15 Nov 2001.

148 Rep ministérielle n° 19850 JOAN Q 4 janv 1999, 109 ‘Le Pacs étant totalement étranger au droit de la filiation, il n'en modifie aucune règle’ and above, n 70, at para 29.

149 Art L 152–2 Code de la santé publique states that medically assisted procreation is only available to couples formed by a man and a woman.

150 Mme Guigou, above, n 68, and above, n 73.

151 Didier Gentil, president of Les Gais et Lesbiennes en marche, in Le Monde, 28 Nov 1999.

152 See Iacub, ‘Homoparentalité et ordre procréatif’, in Au-delà du PaCS, above, n 18, at 189 and Murat, ‘Vers la famille homosexuelle par adoption’, Droit de la famille, avril 2000, 4.

153 Cabrillac, ‘Les réformes du droit de la famille et le PACS’, Droit de la famille, juin 2000, 4.

154 Law of 21 Dec 2000.

155 Eskridge, ‘Comparative Law and the same-sex marriage debate: A step-by-step approach toward State recognition’, 31 McGeorge LRev 641.