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Carl Schmitt and the evolution of Chinese constitutional theory: Conceptual transfer and the unexpected paths of legal globalisation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 October 2019

LUCAS BRANG Open the ORCID record for LUCAS BRANG [Opens in a new window]
LUCAS BRANG*
Affiliation:
a.r.t.e.s. Graduate School of the Humanities Cologne, Aachener Str. 217, 50931Cologne, Germany
*
†Email: [email protected]
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Abstract:

The intense reception of Carl Schmitt’s writings among Chinese constitutional theorists is one of the more striking phenomena within the globalisation of constitutional thought in recent decades. This article approaches it from two angles. First, the reception of Schmitt and the subsequent debates about his oeuvre and persona are interpreted as performative practices in which Schmitt soon emerged as both the bête noire of a liberal-leaning constitutional scholarship and an object of romantic projection for avant-garde theoretical endeavours. Engagement with Schmitt thus crucially contributed to the emergence of both a neo-conservative and a critical-liberal sensibility among Chinese legal scholars. Second, with the rise of what is known in China as Political Constitutionalism in the mid-2000s, Schmitt also began to exert a more substantive terminological and conceptual influence on Chinese constitutional theory more generally, leaving his imprint on some of its fundamental theoretical binaries. Looking at the Chinese debate on Schmitt, therefore, not only grants us a unique glimpse into how constitutional debates are structured and evolving in contemporary China, it also demonstrates the often-unexpected trajectories of conceptual migration in the global age.

Keywords

Carl SchmittChinese party-stateconstitutional theoryconceptual transfer
Type
Articles
Information
Global Constitutionalism , Volume 9 , Issue 1 , March 2020 , pp. 117 - 154
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

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References

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7 A list of the titles in this series (卡尔·施米特研究文丛) can be found at <https://book.douban.com/series/26516>.

8 J Guo, ‘为了打击共同的敌人–施米特及其左派盟友’ [‘In Order to Defeat the Common Enemy – Schmitt and his Left-Wing Allies’] (2006) 94 Twenty-First Century [二十一世纪] 19.

9 See, for instance, Kroll, C, ‘Reading the Temperature Curve: Sinophone Schmitt-fever in Context and Perspective’ in Marchal, K and Shaw, C (eds), Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss in the Chinese-Speaking World: Reorienting the Political (Lexington, London, 2017) 103;Google Scholar Zheng, Q, ‘Chinese Political Constitutionalism and Carl Schmitt’ (2017) 1 Carl Schmitt Studien 43;Google Scholar Zhang, X, ‘Carl Schmitt in China: Why Is He Needed and How Is He Understood? – An Analysis of Chinese Political Constitutional Theory’ (2018) 25(2) Zeitschrift für chinesisches Recht 83.Google Scholar While my account is indebted to earlier explorations of this topic by the quoted authors, it seeks to present a unique perspective on the issue in three regards: first, by including the work of Jiang Shigong in the discussion; second, by showing how the Chinese debate moved from the initial liberal–illiberal divide concerning Schmitt’s political philosophy to a more substantive conceptual controversy with the rise of Political Constitutionalism in the mid-2000s; and, lastly, by reflecting upon the implications of this phenomenon for the study of legal and constitutional globalisation more generally.

10 Generally see Gangl, M, ‘Einleitung. Die Weimarer Staatsrechtsdebatte’ in Gangl, M (ed), Die Weimarer Staatsrechtsdebatte. Diskurs- und Rezeptionsstrategien (Nomos, Baden-Baden, 2011) 9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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21 Consequently, some have argued that Schmitt’s theory of sovereignty is but a factual description of a successful coup d’état. See Neumann, V, ‘Theologie als staatsrechtswissenschaftliches Argument: Hans Kelsen und Carl Schmitt’ (2008) 47(2) Der Staat 163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

22 Schmitt (n 18) 18 (original emphasis).

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28 Schmitt (n 26) 4 (original emphasis).

29 Ibid 76.

30 Ibid 125.

31 Schmitt (n 14) 7

32 Ibid 22 (original emphasis).

33 Schmitt (n 26) 26.

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37 See for instance R Peerenboom, ‘Fly High the Banner of Socialist Rule of Law with Chinese Characteristics! What Does the 4th Plenum Decision Mean for Legal Reforms in China?’ (2015) 7 Hague Journal of the Rule of Law 49.

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39 Ibid 18.

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41 Cf. Kroll (n 9) 106–8.

42 Seppänen (n 38) 15.

43 X Zhang, ‘施米特的挑战: 读“议会民主的危机’’’ [‘The Schmittian Challenge: Reading “The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy”’] (2005) 2 Open Times [开放时代] 126.

44 Marchal and Shaw (n 5); Shaw (n 5).

45 Liu (n 6); Zhang (n 43); also see X Liu, ‘施米特与政治哲学的现代性’ [‘Schmitt and the Modernity of Political Philosophy’] (2001) 3 Zhejiang Academic Journal [浙江学刊] 19.

46 Zhang (n 43) 137–8. Generously, one might call this as a ‘critical’ reading of the friend–enemy distinction. Less generously, one might contend that it is the vulgarisation of its theoretical underpinnings.

47 Mehring, R, ‘Otto Kirchheimer und der Links-Schmittismus’ in Voigt, R (ed), Der Staat des Dezisionismus: Carl Schmitt in der internationalen Debatte (Nomos, Baden-Baden, 2007) 60, 62.Google Scholar

48 Guo (n 8) 19.

49 Ibid 7. Also see the similar criticism in B He, ‘保卫程序: 一个自由主义者对卡尔施米特例外理论的批评’ [‘Defending the Procedure: A Liberal’s Critique of Carl Schmitt’s Theory of the Exception’] (2002) 2 Zhejiang Academic Journal [浙江学刊] 73, 79; W Chen, ‘并不可靠的“合法性’’: 试论卡尔施米特的合法性理论的限度’ [‘Utterly Unreliable “Legitimacy”: A Preliminary Discussion of the Limits of Carl Schmitt’s Theory of Legitimacy’] (2015) 2 Tianfu Xinlun [天府新论] 53, 58.

50 B Xu, ‘中国不需要这样的政治和主权者决断–施米特和国家主义’ [‘China Does Not Need Such Politics and Sovereign Decisions – Schmitt and Nationalism’] (2006) 94 Twenty-First Century [二十一世纪] 26, 34.

51 Guo (n 8) 22. Also see Ji Weidong, who likens the nationalism of the New Left to Schmitt’s rejection of the post-Versailles treaty system: W Ji, ‘施米特宪法学说的睿智与偏见’ [‘Wisdom and Prejudice in Schmitt’s Constitutional Theory’] (2006) 84 Twenty-First Century [二十一世纪] 4, 4.

52 Zheng (n 34) 13–19. However, my taxonomy of the Chinese Schmitt-reception differs from Zheng’s, since her account of Schmitt’s ‘strong’ critics also includes scholars such as Gao Quanxi who I would describe as a ‘critical’ liberal, since he is – despite his principled criticism of Schmitt – concerned with the lesson Schmitt’s work supposedly holds for Chinese constitutional scholarship and political liberalism.

53 Quoted in Zheng (n 9) 49.

54 He (n 49); Neumann (n 21).

55 Ji, W, ‘‘‘To Take the Law as the Public”: The Diversification of Society and Legal Discourse in Contemporary China’ in Balme, S and Dowdle, M (eds), Building Constitutionalism in China (Palgrave, New York, NY, 2009) 125, 136; generally see Kelsen (n 24) and Seppänen (n 38) 125.Google Scholar

56 Ji (n 51) 9.

57 Ibid 8.

58 Ibid 11.

59 Kroll (n 9) 108.

60 Ji (n 51) 8. Also see Q Liu, ‘施米特的幽灵’ [‘Schmitt’s Spectre’] (2006) 94 Twenty-First Century [二十一世纪] 13.

61 Ji (n 55) 132.

62 Veg (n 5) 25.

63 Ibid 31. These mutual affinities are evident, for instance, in the work of Jiang Shigong (see below, section IV).

64 Seppänen (n 38) 134. This is apparent, for instance, in D Chen, ‘论宪法作为国家的根本法与高级法’ [‘On the Constitution as the Fundamental Law and the Highest Law of the State’] (2008) 20(4) Peking University Law Journal [中外法学] 485, 496; and S Jiang, ‘哲学与历史: 从党的十九大报告解读‘‘习近平时代”’ [‘Philosophy and History: An Interpretation of the “Xi Jinping Era” from the Viewpoint of the 19th CPC National Congress Report’] (2018) 1 Open Times [开放时代] 11, 17.

65 Seppänen (n 38) 37.

66 Veg (n 5) 41.

67 In my account, this shift corresponded to a transition from the first to the second and third strategy of reception. In that sense, these might also be seen as historical, rather than merely theoretical categories.

68 Kroll (n 9) 113.

69 See Chen (n 64) 501; Q Gao, ‘政治宪政主义与司法宪政主义’ [‘Political and Judicial Doctrines of Constitutionalism’] in idem, 从非常政治到日常政治 [From Exceptional to Regular Politics] (China Legal Publishing House, Beijing, 2009) 3, 6–7.

70 Cf. X He, ‘The Party’s Leadership as a Living Constitution in China’ (2012) 72 Hong Kong Law Journal 73.

71 For a critical view of this claim see A Chen, ‘China’s Long March towards Rule of Law or China’s Turn against Law?’ (2016) 4 Chinese Journal of Comparative Law 1. For a discussion of the judicialisation drive preceding it see T Kellogg, ‘Constitutionalism with Chinese Characteristics – Constitutional Development and Civil Litigation in China’ (2009) 7(2) International Journal of Constitutional Law 215; T Kellogg, ‘The Death of Constitutional Litigation in China?’ (2009) 9(7) China Brief, available at <https://jamestown.org/program/the-death-of-constitutional-litigation-in-china/>; R Morrison, ‘China’s Marbury: Qi Yuling v. Chen Xiaoqi – The Once and Future Trial of Both Education & Constitutionalization’ (2010) 2 Tsinghua China Law Review, available at <http://www.tsinghuachinalawreview.org/articles/0202_Morris.htm>. For discussions of the continuity under the Xi leadership see T Ginsburg and T Zhang, ‘Legality in Contemporary Chinese Politics’ Virginia Journal of International Law (forthcoming), available at <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3250948>; C Minzner, ‘Legal Reform in the Xi Jinping Era’ (2015) 20 Asia Policy 4; Peerenboom (n 37).

72 See <http://www.chinafile.com/document-9-chinafile-translation>.

73 Seppänen, S, ‘Anti-Formalism and the Pre-Ordained Birth of Chinese Jurisprudence’ (2018) 4 China Perspective 31, 31–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

74 See, for instance, D Chen, ‘论中国宪法的根本原则及其格式化修辞’ [‘On the Fundamental Principles and the Rhetorical Format of the Chinese Constitution’] in idem, 宪政与主权 [Constitutionalism and Sovereignty] (Law Press, Beijing, 2007) 147, 152.

75 Chen (n 64) 501ff; S Jiang, ‘Written and Unwritten Constitutions: A New Approach to the Study of Constitutional Government in China’ (2010) 36(1) Modern China 12, 41; generally see Seppänen (n 38) 36–42 and 104–33.

76 Gao (n 69) 47; Q Gao, ‘政治宪法学的兴起于善变’ [‘Emergence and Evolution of Political Constitutionalism’] in idem, 政治宪法学纲要 [Outline of Political Constitutionalism] (Central Compilation and Translation Press, Beijing, 2014) 1, 6.

77 Gao (n 76) 7.

78 D Chen, ‘宪法的法律性阐释及证立’ [‘Explanation and Demonstration of the Legal Character of the Constitution’] (2016) 10(2) Tsinghua University Law Journal [清华法学] 5, 6.

79 Schmitt (n 26) 22.

80 Gao (n 76).

81 Also see Chen (n 64) 511.

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83 Schmitt (n 18).

84 Ibid 21.

85 Schmitt (n 26) 25.

86 See Chen (n 64) 494.

87 Veg (n 5) 24. Veg suggests with regard to the neo-conservative strand of Political Constitutionalism that ‘[s]everal of their concepts have been translated into new institutional arrangements through the constitutional reform adopted in March 2018’. Ibid 42.

88 Ibid 28.

89 Cf. Z Li, ‘中国宪法学方法论反思’ [‘Reflections on the Methodological Debate in Chinese Constitutional Scholarship’] (2011) 2 Chinese Journal of Law [法学研究] 160, 164; Zheng (n 9).

90 Chen (n 74) 151.

91 Ibid.

92 Chen (n 64) 486.

93 Ibid 488.

94 Cf. Li (n 89) 164–5.

95 Chen (n 78) 20.

96 Ibid 6.

97 Chen (n 64) 487.

98 Ibid 494.

99 Ibid 504.

100 Ibid 502.

101 Ibid 500.

102 Ibid 495.

103 Ibid 487.

104 A classical account is T Hao, ‘论良性违宪’ [‘On Benevolent Constitutional Violations‘] (1996) 4 Chinese Journal of Law [法学研究] 89.

105 For a criticism of Chen’s position see Li (n 89) 165.

106 LC Backer, ‘Reflections on Jiang Shigong on “Philosophy and History: Interpreting the ‘Xi Jinping Era’ through Xi’s Report to the Nineteenth National Congress of the CCP”’ (2018) 6 Working Papers Coalition for Peace & Ethics 1.

107 D Clark, ‘Jiang Shigong on Xi Jinping and Socialism with Chinese Characteristics: An Empty Vessel’ (28 May 2018) available at <https://thechinacollection.org/tag/jiang-shigong/>.

108 Ji (n 55) 133.

109 S Jiang, ‘民主, 如何是好’ [‘How Can Democracy Work?’] (2009) Dushu [读书] 20, 24; S Jiang, ‘革命与法治: 中国道路的理解’ [‘Revolution and Rule of Law: Understanding the Chinese Path’] (2011) Beijing Cultural Review [文化纵横] 36, 40.

110 Seppänen (n 73) 31.

111 Jiang (n 75).

112 Ibid 13.

113 Needless to say, this assertion has encountered criticism by many authors. See, for instance, Li (n 89) 164.

114 Jiang (n 75) 14; also see Liu (n 25).

115 Jiang, S, ‘How to Explore the Chinese Path to Constitutionalism? A Response to Larry Catá Backer’ (2014) 40(2) Modern China 196, 203–4.Google Scholar

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117 Ibid 23.

118 Ibid 24.

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121 Ibid 18, 21; Chen (n 64) 503.

122 S Jiang, ‘党章与宪法: 多元一体法治共和国的建构’ [‘Party Statute and Constitution: Building a Pluralistic yet Integrated Rule of Law Republic’] (2015) 4 Beijing Cultural Review [文化纵横] 18, 20.

123 Ibid 21.

124 Ibid 22, 28.

125 Ibid 26.

126 Ibid 29.

127 Jiang (n 75) 25.

128 Ibid 23.

129 Cf. Li (n 89) 164.

130 Jiang (n 75) 15.

131 Seppänen (n 38) 87.

132 Jiang (n 122) 26.

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135 Chen (n 133) 195.

136 Gao (n 69) 18.

137 Ibid 34, 27.

138 Ibid 23.

139 Ibid 9.

140 Ibid 35.

141 Cf. Chen (n 133) 204.

142 Gao (n 69) 41.

143 Ibid 43.

144 Ibid 17.

145 Q Gao, ‘中国语境下的施米特问题’ [‘The Schmitt Problem in Chinese Context’] (2006) 94 Twenty-First Century [二十一世纪] 119, 128.

146 Ibid 124.

147 Gao (n 69) 28.

148 Gao (n 145) 126.

149 Gao (n 69) 25.

150 Ibid 26.

151 Gao (n 76) 5.

152 Ibid 4–5.

153 Ibid 3. Also see Gao (n 69) 50.

154 Gao (n 76) 7.

155 Gao (n 69) 52.

156 Ibid 49.

157 Ibid 50.

158 Ibid 16.

159 Chen (n 64) 500.

160 Gao (n 69) 17.

161 Also see Li (n 89) 165.

162 Zheng (n 9) 47.

163 Gao (n 69) 5.

164 Ibid 6 (in fn 1).

165 Gao (n 76) 30.

166 Gao (n 69) 36.

167 Wang (n 134) 347.

168 Zheng Qi in particular interprets Schmitt as a thinker of political and democratic transition. Unlike Gao, however, who adopts Schmitt’s ideas as a mere cautionary example, Zheng argues for looking at him more positively as a theorist who provides helpful insights into exceptional politics during political transition periods. See Zheng (n 34) 111ff and passim. Also see Böckenförde (n 2) for a post-War German take on this.

169 Choudhry, S, ‘Migration as a New Metaphor in Comparative Constitutional Law’ in idem (ed), The Migration of Constitutional Ideas (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006) 1.Google Scholar

170 Shinar, A, ‘The Ideologies of Global Constitutionalism’ (2019) 8(1) Global Constitutionalism 12, 19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

171 D Chen, ‘解读修宪’ [‘Reading the Constitutional Amendment’] (31 January 2018) available at <https:// www.guancha.cn/ChenDuanHong/2018_01_31_445247.shtml>.

172 Q Gao, ‘宪法的生命在于实施’ [‘The Life of the Constitution Resides in Its Implementation’] (2018) 170 Democracy and Science [民主与科学] 6, 8.

173 Ibid 7.

174 Jiang (n 64) 18. This criticism was reciprocated by Gao (n 172) 6.

175 Jiang (n 64) 23. I cite here from the English translation of Jiang’s text by David Ownby which is available at <https://www.thechinastory.org/cot/jiang-shigong-on-philosophy-andhistory-interpreting-the-xi-jinping-era-through-xis-report-to-the-nineteenth-nationalcongress-of-the-ccp/>. References are to the page numbers of the original Chinese version.

176 Ibid 25.

177 S Jiang, ‘陆地与海洋: “空间革命”与世界历史的“麦金德时代”’ [‘Land and Sea: “Spatial Revolutions” and the “Mackinder Age” of World History’] (2018) 6 Open Times [开放时代] 103, 115.

178 Q Gao, ‘三十年法制变革之何种“中国经验”’ [‘What Is the “Chinese Experience” after 30 Years of Legal Reform?’] in idem, 从非常政治到日常政治 [From Exceptional to Regular Politics] (China Legal Publishing House, Beijing, 2009) 55, 68.