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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 January 2025
Whistleblowers promote the values of responsible government and the rule of law by drawing attention to criminal or other forms of wrongdoing in publicly accountable organisations. This article explores the relationship between whistleblowing, national security and the implied freedom of political communication under the Australian Constitution. Legislation such as the Crimes Act 1914 (Cth) (‘Crimes Act’), the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 (Cth) (‘ASIO Act’) and the Australian Border Force Act 2015 (Cth) (‘Border Force Act’) makes it an offence to reveal certain types of information obtained as a Commonwealth officer. The Public Interest Disclosure Act 2013 (Cth) (‘PIDA’) offers limited protection to whistleblowers in the Commonwealth public sector, but this protection does not extend to information relating to intelligence operations. We argue that blanket criminalisation of unauthorised disclosure by Commonwealth officers or contractors under s 70 of the Crimes Act, along with similar prohibitions in s 35P of the ASIO Act and s 42 of the Border Force Act, offend the implied freedom of political communication by failing to strike an adequate balance between national security and organisational secrecy, on the one hand, and public debate and discussion, on the other. The courts should read down these laws to protect disclosures that hold significant public interest for discussion and debate over government policy or the performance of government officials.
The authors would like to thank Jake Buckingham, Eoin Coffey, and Amy Kosa for their excellent research assistance.
1 See, eg, Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129, 147 (Knox CJ, Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ); Victorian Stevedoring and General Contracting Co Pty Ltd v Dignan (1931) 46 CLR 73, 114 (Evatt J).
2 Cf Near, Janet and Miceli, Marcia, ‘Effective Whistleblowing’ (1995) 20 Academy of Management Review 679CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 680.
3 Loyens, Kim and Maesschalck, Jeroen, ‘Whistleblowing and Power’ in Brown, A J et al (eds), International Handbook on Whistleblowing Research (Edward Elgar, 2014) 154Google Scholar, 154.
4 Lewis, Jeremy et al, Whistleblowing Law and Practice (Oxford University Press, 2nd ed, 2012) 1.Google Scholar
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6 Near and Miceli, above n 2, 679.
7 McMillan, John, Barbour, Bruce, and Bevan, David, ‘Foreword’ in Brown, A J, Public Interest Disclosure Legislation in Australia: Towards the Next Generation, Issues Paper No 1 (2006) <https://www.ombudsman.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0026/29672/issues_paper_whistleblower.pdf>.Google Scholar
8 (1997) 189 CLR 520 (‘Lange’).
9 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 19 June 2013, 6407 (Mark Dreyfus, Attorney-General, Minister for Emergency Management, Minister for the Public Service and Integrity and Special Minister of State).
10 PIDA s 10(1)(a).
11 Ibid s 10(1)(b).
12 Ibid s 10(2)(a).
13 Ibid s 23(1)(a).
14 Ibid s 26(1)(c), items 2(h)–(i), 3(f), 4(c).
15 Ibid s 26(1)(c) items 2(c)–(i).
16 For discussion, see Carne, Greg, ‘Sharpening the Learning Curve: Lessons from the Commonwealth Parliamentary Joint Committee of Intelligence and Security Review Experience of Five Important Aspects of Terrorism Laws’ (2016) 41 University of Western Australia Law Review 1.Google Scholar
17 Attorney-General's Department and ASIO, Submission No 8 to Acting Independent National Security Legislation Monitor, AINSLM Inquiry into section 35P of the ASIO Act, 21 January 2015, 2–3.
18 Attorney-General's Department, Submission No 24 to Acting Independent National Security Legislation Monitor (Attachment A), AINSLM Inquiry into section 35P of the ASIO Act, 21 April 2015, 7.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid 13.
21 Bar Association of Queensland, Submission No 12 to Acting Independent National Security Legislation Monitor, AINSLM Inquiry into section 35P of the ASIO Act, 20 April 2015, 2.
22 Ibid.
23 ASIO Act s 4 (definition of ‘special intelligence conduct’).
24 Roger Gyles, ‘Report on the Impact on Journalists of section 35P of the ASIO Act’ (Independent National Security Legislation Monitor, October 2015) <https://www.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/publications/inslm_report_impact_s35p_journalists.pdf>.
25 Ibid 2.
26 Commonwealth Attorney-General's Department, ‘Government Response to INSLM Report on the Impact on Journalists of Section 35P of the ASIO Act 1979’ (Media Release, 2 February 2016) <http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/21248/20171220-1246/www.attorneygeneral.gov.au/Mediareleases/Pages/2016/FirstQuarter/2-Feburary-2016-Government-response-to-INSLM-report-on-the-impact-on-journalists-of-section-35P-of-the-ASIO-Act-1979.html>.
27 Kieran Hardy, ‘Despite Changes, Terror Law Will Still Curb Press Freedom’, The Conversation (online), 5 February 2016 <https://theconversation.com/despite-changes-terror-law-will-still-curb-press-freedom-54122>.
28 Explanatory Memorandum, National Security Legislation Amendment Bill (No 1) 2014 (Cth) 32.
29 Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions, Prosecuting Offences for the Unauthorised Disclosure of Information relating to Controlled Operations, Special Intelligence Operations or Delayed Notification Search Warrants (1 December 2014) 5 <https://www.cdpp.gov.au/publications/prosecuting-offences-unauthorised-disclosure-information-relating-controlled-operations>.
30 Ibid 4.
31 Attorney-General (Cth), Ministerial Direction (Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions), 30 October 2014.
32 Ibid.
33 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 9 August 2017, 7822 (Peter Dutton, Minister for Immigration and Border Protection).
34 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 25 February 2015, 1206 (Peter Dutton, Minister for Immigration and Border Protection).
35 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, Senate, 14 May 2015, 3173 (Sarah Hanson-Young).
36 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, Senate, 14 May 2015, 3175 (Sam Dastyari, Temporary Chair).
37 Department of Parliamentary Services (Cth), Bills Digest, No 94 of 2014–5, 7 May 2015, 20.
38 Ibid.
39 Border Force Act s 2.
40 Ibid s 4(1).
41 Ibid s 42(3).
42 ‘[O]r on board an Australian aircraft or ship’: Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) s 15.1(1)(a).
43 Ibid s 15.2(1)(c).
44 Ibid div 72.
45 Ibid div 73.
46 Ibid div 80.
47 Ibid div 270.
48 Ibid div 271.
49 Ibid div 300.
50 Newhouse, George, New Laws Criminalise Recording Information and Whistleblowing (12 June 2015), Julian Burnside <http://www.julianburnside.com.au/whatsinside/uploads/2015/07/Criminalising-whistleblowing-under-the-ABF-Act.pdf>.Google Scholar
51 Border Force Act s 42(2)(c).
52 Ibid s 42(2)(d).
53 Michael Bradley, ‘Border Force Act: Why Do We Need These Laws?’, ABC News (online) 16 July 2015 <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-07-16/bradley-border-force-act-why-do-we-need-these-laws/6623376>.
54 PIDA s 23(1)(a).
55 Border Force Act s 48.
56 Michael Bradley, ‘Border Force Act: Why Do We Need These Laws?’, ABC News (online) 16 July 2015 <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-07-16/bradley-border-force-act-why-do-we-need-these-laws/6623376>.
57 Australian Border Force Amendment (Protected Information) Act 2017 (Cth) s 4.
58 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 9 August 2017, 7822 (Peter Dutton, Minister for Immigration and Border Protection).
59 Ibid.
60 Australian Border Force Amendment (Protected Information) Act 2017 (Cth) s 21.
61 Ibid s 31.
62 Revised Explanatory Memorandum, Australian Border Force Amendment (Protected Information) Bill 2017 (Cth) 13.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
65 Refugee Advice and Casework Service, Submission No 6 to the Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Committee, Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Committee Inquiry into Australian Border Force Amendment (Protected Information) Bill 2017, 28 August 2017, 2.
66 Australian Law Reform Commission, Secrecy Laws and Open Government in Australia, Report No 112 (2010) 22.
67 See, eg, Olivia Laughland and Ben Doherty, ‘Nauru Staff Report Persistent Child Abuse and Self-Harm, Leaked Documents Show’, The Guardian (online), 4 October 2014 <http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/oct/04/nauru-detention-centre-staff-persistent-child-abuse-self-harm>; ‘Health Panel Sacked Over Conflict of Interest With Immigration’, The Australian (online), 13 February 2014 <http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/immigration/health-panel-sacked-over-conflict-of-interest-with-immigration/story-fn9hm1gu-1226826194696>; Latika Bourke, ‘Immigration Minister Scott Morrison Announces New Australian Border Force’, ABC News (online), 10 May 2014 <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-05-09/immigration-minister-scott-morrison-announces-new-border-agency/5441968>; Noel Towell, ‘Disclose or Leave: Immigration Department Workers Face Organisational Suitability Assessments’, The Canberra Times (online), 12 January 2015 <http://www.canberratimes.com.au/national/public-service/disclose-or-leave-immigration-department-workers-face-organisational-suitability-assessments-20150109-12l6qy.html>; Felicity Nelson, ‘Burnside Dares Govt To Prosecute Whistleblower Doctors’,Lawyers Weekly (online), 24 June 2015 <http://www.lawyersweekly.com.au/wig-chamber/news/16722-burnside-dares-gov-to-prosecute-whistleblower-doctors>.
68 Australian Human Rights Commission, ‘The Forgotten Children: National Inquiry into Children in Immigration Detention’ (Report, 2014) 11 <https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/document/publication/forgotten_children_2014.pdf>.
69 See, eg, Editorial, ‘Close Nauru’, The Saturday Paper, 22 August 2015; ‘Australia Asylum: Why is it Controversial?’, BBC News (online), 9 November 2015 <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-28189608>; Editorial, ‘Children in Detention: Is Australia Breaching International Law?’, ABC News (online), 8 April 2014 <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-03-31/children-in-detention-is-australia-breaching-international-law/5344022>. See also Ireland-Piper, Danielle, ‘Responsible International Citizenry in the Asian Century—Why Failure to Meet International Obligations Adversely Affects Australia's National Interest’ in Farrar, John, Hiscock, Mary and lo Lo, Vai (eds), Australia's Trade, Investment and Security in the Asian Century (World Scientific Publishing, 2015).Google Scholar
70 See, eg, United Nations Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations on the Sixth Periodic Report of Australia, 121st sess, Agenda Item 5, UN Doc CCPR/C/AUS/CO/6 (16 October – 10 November 2017) 7–8. See also ABC News Radio, ‘New UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Slams Australia's Asylum Seeker Policy’, PM, 8 September 2014 (Sarah Dingle) <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-09-08/new-un-high-commissioner-for-human-rights-slams/5728702>.
71 Border Force Act ss 7, 42.
72 (1992) 177 CLR 1 (‘Nationwide News’).
73 (1992) 177 CLR 106 (‘ACTV’).
74 Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1, 74.
75 (1997) 189 CLR 520.
76 Ibid 560.
77 [2015] HCA 34, [2] (‘McCloy’).
78 Ibid.
79 (1994) 182 CLR 272 (‘Cunliffe’).
80 (2005) 224 CLR 322.
81 See, eg, Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1; Levy v Victoria (1997) 189 CLR 579.
82 Nationwide News (1992) 177 CLR 1.
83 See, eg, Stephens v West Australian Newspapers (1994) 182 CLR 211; Theophanous v Herald and Weekly Times (1994) 182 CLR 104.
84 Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1 (‘Coleman’).
85 Monis v The Queen (2013) 249 CLR 92 (‘Monis’).
86 (1997) 189 CLR 520.
87 Australian Law Reform Commission, Secrecy Laws and Open Government in Australia, Report No 112 (2010) 21.
88 (1992) 177 CLR 1, 79.
89 (2004) 220 CLR 1, 45.
90 Ibid 78.
91 Hogan v Hinch (2011) 243 CLR 506, 555–6 (Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).
92 Cf ACTV (1992) 177 CLR 106, 143 (Mason J), 234–5 (McHugh J).
93 (2003) 204 ALR 119 (‘Bennett’).
94 Ibid 135 [75].
95 (1997) 189 CLR 520, 560.
96 Cat Barker, Australian Border Force Bill 2015 [and] Customs and Other Legislation Amendment (Australian Border Force) Bill 2015, No 94 of 2014–15, 14 July 2014, 20, referring to the PIDA s 41(2).
97 [2015] HCA 34, [2].
98 ACTV (1992) 177 CLR 106.
99 Mulholland v Australian Electoral Commission (2004) 220 CLR 181, 194–5 (Gleeson CJ), 211–14 (McHugh J), 261–2 (Kirby J).
100 (1992) 177 CLR 106, 143 (Mason J), 234–5 (McHugh J).
101 Hogan v Hinch (2011) 243 CLR 506, 555–6 (Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).
102 (1992) 177 CLR 1, 79.
103 (1980) 147 CLR 39.
104 Ibid 52.
105 See, eg, Thomas v Mowbray (2007) 233 CLR 307; Ruddock v Vadarlis (2001) 183 ALR 1.
106 See generally Walsh, Tamara, ‘The Impact of Coleman v Power on the Policing, Defence and Sentencing of Public Nuisance Cases in Queensland’ (2006) 30 Melbourne University Law Review 191.Google Scholar
107 (2012) 246 CLR 1.
108 (2013) 249 CLR 92.
109 [2015] HCA 34, [2].
110 For critical discussion, see Shipra Chordia, ‘Proportionality and McCloy v New South Wales: Close but Not Quite?’ on AUSPUBLAW, Australian Public Law Blog (1 March 2016) <https://auspublaw.org/2016/03/proportionality-and-mccloy/>.
111 [2016] HCA 36.
112 Ibid [37].
113 Ibid [64]–[65].
114 See, eg, Goldsworthy, Jeffrey, ‘Constitutional Implications and Freedom of Political Speech: A Reply to Stephen Donaghue’ (1997) 23 Monash University Law Review 362Google Scholar; Stone, Adrienne, ‘Freedom of Political Communication, the Constitution and the Common Law’ (1998) 26 Federal Law Review 219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
115 Hart, H L A, The Concept of Law (Oxford University Press, 2nd ed, 1994) 128Google Scholar; Hart, H L A, ‘Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals’ (1958) 71 Harvard Law Review 593, 607CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
116 Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security, Parliament of Australia, Advisory Report on the National Security Legislation Amendment Bill (No 1) 2014 (2014) 66 [3.112].
117 Ibid 66 [3.113].
118 McCloy [2015] HCA 34, [2].
119 (2003) 204 ALR 119, 135 [75].
120 (2012) 246 CLR 1, 16 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan and Bell JJ).
121 See, eg, Betfair v Western Australia (2008) 234 CLR 418, 487 (Heydon J).
122 Cf McCloy [2015] HCA 34, [2] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ).
123 Ibid.
124 Pratt Consolidated Holdings v Commissioner of Taxation [2011] AATA 907, [59].
125 (1989) 168 CLR 210, 216.
126 Chesterton Global Ltd v Nurmohamed [2017] EWCA Civ 979, [34].
127 See, eg, Coleman (2004) 220 CLR 1, 53–4 (McHugh J); Monis (2013) 249 CLR 92, 210–11 (Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).
128 [2015] HCA 34, [2] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ).
129 Hogan v Hinch (2011) 243 CLR 506, 555–6 (Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).