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Section 117 of the Constitution: The Unfinished Rehabilitation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Michael Mathieson
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Extract

I do not understand how, by whatever words that proposition is dressed up, it means anything else except that section 117 does not apply if the Court does not want it to.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 27 , Issue 3 , September 1999 , pp. 393 - 420
Copyright
Copyright © 1999 The Australian National University

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Footnotes

*

I am grateful for the comments of David Bennett QC, Jennifer Clarke, Professor Michael Coper, Jeanie Hayden, Nick Seddon and Adrienne Stone on earlier drafts of this article. Any errors or infelicities are, of course, my own.

References

1 Brennan J, Goryl u Greyhound Australia Ptt; Ltd, Transcript of Proceedings (12 October 1993) at 50, responding to the submission made during argument by K Mason QC (at 49) that “section 117 is but one section in a federal constitutional document which establishes ... communities with obligations and responsibilities and powers which, by their nature in some cases, have to be framed to have regard to those who are under the proper protection of the State.”

2 (1989) 168 CLR 461.

3 (1994) 179 C:LR 463.

4 Section 117 reads: “A subject of Lhe Queen, resident in any Slate, shall not be subject in any other State to any disability or discrimination which would not be equally applicable to him if he were a subject of the Queen resident in such other State.”

5 See, for example, Zines, L, The High Court and the Constitution (4th ed 1997) at 405-407, 447 and 456-457Google Scholar.

6 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 489.

7 Ibid at 491-493 per Mason CJ and at 548 per Dawson J. See also Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 486-487 per Dawson and Toohey JJ.

8 Street ibid at 570-574 per Gaudron J. See also Gory (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 480 per Deane and GaudronJJ.

9 Ibid at 528-529 per Deane J and at 560 per Toohey J.

10 Ibid at 512-514 per Brennan J and 583-584 per McHugh J. See also Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 493 per McHugh J.

11 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 485 per Mason CJ, at 540 per Dawson J and at 552 per Toohey J.See also M Coper, Encounters 'With the Australian Constitution (1988) at 314.

12 M Farrand (ed), The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 (191l) vol 3 at 112; Antieau, C J,“Paul's Perverted Privileges or the True Meaning of the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article Four” (1967) 9 William Et Mary LR 1 at 2-5Google Scholar.

13 Austin v New Hampshire 420 US 656 at 660-661 per Marshall J (1975).

14 Hamilton, A, “Number 80: Jurisdiction of the Federal Courts” in RP Fairfield (ed), The Federalist Papers (2nd ed 1981) at 238Google Scholar.

15 Ironically, s 117 was first successfully applied by a State court: Commissioner for Taxes v Parks [1933] St R Qd 306.

16 A Hamilton, above n 14 at 238.

17 8 Wall 168 (1869).

18 Ibid at 180.

19 Ibid.

20 See, for example, Toomer v Witsell 334 US 385 at 395 per Vinson CJ (1948): “The primary purpose of this clause ... was to help fuse into a Nation a collection of independent, sovereign States”.

21 Austin 420 US 656 at 660 (1975).

22 Compare Williams, G, Ruman Rights under the Australian Constitution (1999) at 120Google Scholar.

23 Craven, G (ed), The Convention Debates 1891-1898: Commentaries, Indices and Guidr (1986) vol 4 at 664-691Google Scholar (Debates); J Quick and RR Garran ,The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commomvealth (1901; reprinted 1995) at 953-954; Mendelson, W, “Foreign Reactions to American Experience with 'Due Process of Law” (1955) 41 Virginia LR 493 at 493-494CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pannam, C, “Discrimination on the Basis of State Residence in Australia and the United States” (1967) 6 MllLR 105 at 106-113Google Scholar; La Nauze, J A, The Making of the Australian Constitution (1972) at 229-230Google Scholar; Williams, J M, “Race, Citizenship and the Formation of the Australian Constitution: Andrew Inglis Clark and the '14th Amendment” (1996) 42 Australian Journal of Politics and History 10 at 12-18CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Patapan, H, “The Dead Hand of the Founders? Original Intent and the Constitutional Protection of Rights and Freedoms in Australia” (1997) 25 FL Rev 211 at 226-231Google Scholar; Rubenstein, K, “Citizenship and lhe Constitutional Convention Debates: A Mere Legal Inference” (1997) 25 FL Reu 295 at 296-308Google Scholar; G Williams, above n 22 at 37-38 and 119.

24 A T Clark's proposal, based primarily upon the 14th Amendment, was rejected in a 17:24 vote: Debates above n 23 vol 4 at 685.

25 Debates above n 23 vol 5 at 1780.

26 8 Wall 168 at 180 (1869) (emphasis added). “It was designed to insure to a citizen of State A who ventures into State B the same privileges which the citizens of State B enjoy”: Toomer 334 US 385 at 395 (1948).

27 Debates above 11 23 vol 5 at 1794 (emphasis added).

28 16 Wall 36 (1873).

29 Ibid at 77 (emphasis added).

30 Debates above n 23 vol 5 al 1800 (emphasis added).

31 Downham v Alexandria 10 Wall 173 at 175 per Field J (1870); Ward v Maryland 12 Wall 418 at 430-431 per Clifford J (1871); Debates above n 23 vol 5 at 1782, 1787 and 1796 (Symon).

32 Breadth of language: see C Pannam, above n 23 at 131. Other interpretations: see Part 2 for discussion of the “natural rights” and “anti-discrimination” interpretations of the clause; a fourth, “carrying rights” interpretation was rejected last century: City of Detroit v Osborne 135 US 492 (1890)) and is merely noted.

33 Debates above n 23 vol 5 at 1787.

34 Ibid at 1800 (Turner) and 1800-1801 (Higgins). See also Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 541 per DawsonJ.

35 Wynes, W A, Legislative, Executive and Judicial Powers in Australia (3rd ed 1962) at 140-141Google Scholar.

36 As Higgins expressed it, succinctly, if offensively, “we want a discrimination based on colour”: Debates above n 23 vol 5 at 1801. See also at 1781-1782 (Forrest), 1783-1784 (Kingston) and 1788 (Isaacs).

37 See, for example, Charlesworth, H, “Individual Rights and the Australian High Court” (1986) 4 Law in Context 52 at 61Google Scholar, O'Neill, N K F, “Constitutional Human Rights in Australia” (1987) 17 F L Rei, 85 at 112-113Google Scholar; Hanks, P, “Constitutional Guarantees” in HP Lee and G Winterton (eds), Australian Constitutional Perspectives (1992) at 106Google Scholar; J M Williams, above n 23 at 16; G Williams, above n 22 at 38 and 119.

38 See n 24 above.

39 See J M Williams, above n 23.

40 Henry u Boehm (1973) 128 CLR 482 at 506-507 per Stephen J.

41 Ibid at 487 per Barwick CJ. See also Street, Transcript of Proceedings (15 March 1989) at 208 (J Doyle QC). M Williams, above n 23.

42 Ibid. See also Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 554 per Toohey J; Detmold, M, The Australian Commonwealth (1985) at 77Google Scholar.

43 Davies and Tones v Wt'stern Australia (1904) 2 CLR 29 at 52 per O'Connor J; FL Stow, “Section 117 of tl1e Constitution” (1906) 3 Commonwealth Law Rev 97 at 98; Moore, W H, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (1902) at 294Google Scholar; cf Moore, W H, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (2nd ed 1910Google Scholar; reprinted 1997) at 332 (this shift in view between editions reflecting Harrison Moore's increasing conviction that s 117 was, by its terms, more protective than the privileges and immunities clause: see C Pannarn, above n 23 atl46).

44 See, for example, Byers, M et al, Final Report of the Constitutional Commission (1988) at 67Google Scholar.

45 (1904) 2 CLR 29.

46 FL Stow, above n 43 at 99.

47 Ibid at 105-106.

48 Lee Fay v Vincent (1908) 7 CLR 389; R v Smithers;Ex parte Benson (1912) 16 CLR 99; cf Australian Building Construction Employees v Commonwealth Trading Bank [1976] 2 NSWLR 371; Re Loubie [1986] 1 Qd R 272; Ex parte Vcltmeyer [1989] 1 Qd R 462. See also G Ebbeck,“Section 117: The Obscure Provision” (1991) 13 Adel LR 23.

49 (1973) 128 CLR 482.

50 Zines, L, Constitutional Change in the Commonwealth (1991) at 64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 489 per Mason CJ, at 518-519 per Brennan J, at 532 per Deane J,at 549 per Dawson J, at 560 per Toohey J, at 569-570 per Gaudron J and at 588 per McHugh J. Only three judges chose expressly to overrule Davies and Jones: at 489 per Mason CJ, 533 per Deane J and 569-570 per Gaudron J.

52 See, for example, ibid at 527 per Deane J.

53 Ibid at 481-487.

54 Ibid at 485.

55 Ibid. See also ibid at 516-517 per Brennan J, at 543-544 per Dawson J and at 586-587 per McHugh J; Davies and Jones (1904) 2 CLR 29 at 39 per Griffith CJ; cf Rose, D, “Discrimination, Uniformity and Preference-Some Aspects of the Express Constitutional Provisions” in L Zines (ed), Commentaries on the Australian Constitution (1977) at 223Google Scholar.

56 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 489 (the precise words used in s 117 are “to him if he were”; hence the focus on the actual and hypothetical position of the out-of-state resident). See also ibid at 506-507 per Brennan J, at 525 per Deane J, at 544-545 per Dawson J, at 558-559 per Toohey J, at 566-567 per Gauclron J and at 582 per McHugh J; Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 474 per Brennan J, at 478 per Deane and Gaudron JJ and at 494-495 per McHugh J;Henry (1973) 128 CLR 482 at 501-502 per Stephen J; M Coper, above n 11 at 316.

57 See also L Zines, above n 5 at 405.

58 (1994) 179 CLR 463.

59 Henry (1973) 128 CLR 482 at 495.

60 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 546.

61 Ibid at 491 per Mason CJ (references omitted).

62 See W J Meyers, “The Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the Several States (Parts 1 and 2)” (1903) l Michigan LR 286 and 364; R How<:'11, The Privileges and Immunities of State Citizenship (1918); Note, “The Equal Privileges and Immunities Clause of the Federal Constitution” (1928) 28 Columbia LR 347; Currie, B and Schreter, H H, “Unconstitutional Discrimination in the Conflict of Laws: Privileges and Immunities” (1960) 69 Yale LJ 1323CrossRefGoogle Scholar; CJ Antieau, above n 12; C Pannam, above n 23; Knox, W A, “Prospective Applications of the Article IV Privileges and Immunities Clause of the United States Constitution” (1978) 43 Missouri LR lGoogle Scholar; Simson, G J, “Discrimination Against Nonresidents and the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV” (1979) 128 U Penn LR 379Google Scholar; Varat, J D, “State 'Citizenship' and Interstate Equality” (1981) 48 U Chic LR 487CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tribe, L H, American Constitutional Law (2nd ed 1988)Google Scholar.

63 Corfield v Coryell 6 FCas 546 (No 3230) (CCED Pa 1823).

64 Ibid.

65 Paul 8 Wall 168 (1869).

66 Hague v CIO 307 US 496 (1939); Toomer 334 US 385 (1948).

67 Baldwin v Montana Fish and Game Commission 436 US 371 (1978).

68 Supreme Court of New Hampshire v Piper 470 US 274 (1985). Professor Ely originally suggested that “Baldwin appears to have been gutted a month after it was decided by Hicklin v Orbeck [437 US 518 (1978)]”: J H Ely, On Constitutional Ground (1996) at 66-67 (reprinting J H Ely, “Choice of Law and the Slate's Interest in Protecting its Own” ('198-1) 23 William [-f Mary LR 173). However, Baldwin and the fundamentality doctrine were strongly affirmed in Piper.

69 L H Tribe, above n 62 at 529.

70 Co,field 6 FCas 546 at 551 (No 3230) (CCED Pa 1823).

71 Hague 307 US 496 (1939);Toomer 334 US 385 (1948).

72 436 us 371 (1978).

73 Ibid at 387 per Blackmun J.

74 Ibid at 383 (emphasis added).

75 Ibid at 388.

76 See, for example, Leask<' Commonwealth (1996) 187 CLR 579.

77 Compare Baldwin 436 US 371 at 7 387 (1978).

78 Compare L H Tribe, above n 62 at 536.

79 See text accompanying nn 116-123 below.

80 G J Simson, above n 62 at 382-386; JI-I Ely, above n 68 at 66-72; JD Varat, above n 62 at 509- S-16; L H Tribe, above n 62 at 534-540. For a spirited defence of the fundamentality doctrine in its original, “natural rights” form, see C: J Antieau, above n 12.

81 Piper 470 US 274 (1985) (legal practice); Hicklin 437 US 518 (1978) (employment on oil and gas projects); Toomer 334 US 385 CJ(1948) (commercial shrimp fishing).

82 Baldwin 436 US 371 (1978) (elk hunting is “mere recreation” not the “pursuit of a livelihood”).

83 Doe v Bolton 410 US 179 (1973) (differential treatment with respect to medical services invalidated).

84 United States Constitution, Art IV, s 2, cl l (emphasis added); G J Simson, above n 62 at 386.

85 Compare Piper 470 US 274 al 280 per Powell J (1985).

86 JD Varat, above n 62 at 511. See also L H Tribe, above n 62 at 537: “[T]he history of the privileges and immunities clause … indicates that it was designed to bind the citizens of the several states socially and politically as well as commercially”.

87 JD Varat ibid. See also L H Tribe, above n 62 at 537.

88 J D Varat ibid.

89 See cases mentioned above n 81.

90 G J Simson, above n 62 at 385.

91 Chemung Canal Bank v Lowery 93 US 72 at 77 (1876).

92 Blake v McClung 172 US 239 at 256 Cl898); Canadian Northern Rail Co” Eggen 252 US 553 at 562 (1920);Hague 307 US 496 (1939).

93 334 US 385 at 396 (1948).

94 The doctrine and the exception “were never meant to mate”: Baldwin 436 US 371 at 397-398 per Brennan J (dissenting) (1978).

95 Lunding v New York Tax Appeals Tribunal 118 SCt 766 (1998);Barnard v Thorstenn 489 US 546 (1989);Supreme Court of Virginia v Friedman 487 US 59 (1988);Piper 470 US 274 (1985);United Building c'>' Construction Trades Council v Mayor and Council of Camden 465 US 208 (1984);Hicklin 437 US 518 (1978);Baldwin 436 US 371 (1978);Austin 420 US 656 (1975).

96 470 us 274 (1985).

97 Ibid at 284.

98 Ibid.

99 Ibid.

100 Belown 139.

101 334 US 385 at 396 (1948) (quoted with approval by Rehnquist CJ (dissenting) in Piper 470 US 274 at 291 (1985)).

102 See text accompanying n 145 below; C Pannam, above n 23 at 147.

103 See, for example, Note, above n 62 at 348.

104 G J Simson, above 11 62 at 386.

105 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 490 per Mason CJ, at 512 per Brennan J, at 528 per Deane J, at 548 per Dawson J, at 559 per Toohey J, at 570 per Gaudron J and at 583 per McHugh J; Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 478 per Deane and Gaudron JJ, at 485 per Dawson and Toohey JJ and at 493 per McHugh J.

106 Senate: Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 512 per Bre1man J, at 528 per Deane J and at 559 per Toohey J; the other judges appeared to consider the matter too obvious for comment. State: ibid at 513 per Brennan J, at 528 per Deane J, at 548 per Dawson J, at 559 per Toohey J, at 572 per Gaudron J and at 584 per McHugh J; Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 485-486 per Dawson and Toohey JJ (Mason CJ concurring) and at 493 per McHugh J; Henry (1973) 128 CLR 482 at 507 per Stephen J.

107 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 485.

108 lbid at 541. See also ibid at 522 per Deane J.

109 Ibid at 491.

110 Ibid at 548.

111 Ibid.

112 Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 486 per Dawson and Toohey JJ.

113 Ibid at 471.

114 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 492. See also Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 486 per Dawson and TooheyJJ.

115 Baldwin 436 US 371 at 383 (1978) (emphasis added).

116 J D Varat, above n 62 at 516-520.

117 Ibid at 519-520.

118 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 485.

119 Emphasis added.

120 The saving of State constitutions (s 106), legislative power (s 107) and laws (s 108). Note that these provisions operate subject to the Constitution and therefore, presumably, to s 117.

121 See, for example, ss 7-23 regarding the Senate.

122 Debates above n 23 vol 5 at 1785 (Quick) and 1797-1799 (Isaacs). See also H Charlesworth, above n 37 at 53; cf Crommelin, M, “Federalism” in PD Finn (ed), Essays on Law and Government: Volume 1-Principles and Values (1995) at 169Google Scholar.

123 Compare L Zines, above n 5 at 407.

124 See the discussion of the Senate and State election franchises, below text al n 195.

125 Street C(l989) 168 CLR 461 at 492.

126 See text accompanying nn 87-90 above.

127 Doe 410 US 179 (1973).

128 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 492.

129 See text accompanying n 104 above.

130 Street (1989) '168 CLR 461 at 491 per Mason CJ (“useful”) and at 546 per Dawson J (“instructive”).

131 Ibid at 491-493 per Mason CJ and at 549-550 per Dawson J.

132 Ibid at 585.

133 Ibid at 514 per Brennan J (“extreme caution is needed”), at 560 per Toohey J (“does not offer a safe guide”) and at 584 per McHugh J (“limited assistance”). See also C Pannam, above n 23 at 146-147.

134 Cole v Whitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360 at 394.

135 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 570.

136 Ibid. Brennan J, loo, placed some reliance on this expression: at 505-512. Despite appearances to the contrary, it is difficult to reconcile Brennan J's treatments of “discrimination” and “necessary implications”.

137 Ibid at 570-574. Her Honour referred to: Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW); South West Africa Cases (Second Phase) (1966) ICJR 6; Re Electric Refrigerators (1963) 2 CMLR 289; State of West Bengal v Anwar Ali (1952) 39 AIR (SC) 75. See also Waters v Public Transport Corporation (1991) 173 CLR 349 at 364 per Mason CJ and Gaudron J; K Booker et al, Federal Constitutional Law: An introduction (2nd ed 1998) at 225. Compare Castlemaine Tooheys Ltd v South Australia (1990) 169 CLR 436 at 478-480 per Gaudron and McHugh JJ, criticised by L Zines, above n 5 at 143.

138 Street (1989) 168 CLR461 at 572.

139 Relatedly, a proportionality test for s 117 was proposed by counsel for the Commonwealth Attorney-General in Goryl: see Transcript of Proceedings (12 October 1993) at 53 (G Griffith QC). Such a test was expressly rejected by McHugh J (see Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 493- 4) and ignored by the other members of the Court. Given that proportionality is inextricably linked with the “modern” conception of discrimination (see, eg, J Kirk, “Constitutional Guarantees, Characterisation and the Concept of Proportionality” (1997) 21 MULR 1) and given that this conception is, in my opinion, inappropriate in the context of s 117 (see “Critique of the Textual Approach” below), I respectfully support the position taken by the High Court on this issue.

140 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 582-583. His Honour referred to:Deputy Federal Commissioner of Taxation (NSW) ,1 iw Moran Phj Ltd (1939) 61 CLR 735;Belgian Linguistic Case (No 2) (1968) 1 EHRR 252; Ontario Human Rights Commission v Simpson-Sears Ltd Cl985) 2 SCR 536.

141 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 583.

142 Ibid.

143 Zines, L and Lindell, G J, “Form and Substance: 'Discrimination' in Modern Constitutional Law” (1992) 21 FL Rev 136Google Scholar.

144 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 572-573 (“the considerations … are similar”). Deane J did not express any opinion on the relevance of the US materials.

145 See text accompanying n 102 above.

146 See text accompanying n 104 above.

147 See text accompanying nn 105-106 above.

148 Ibid.

149 Street (1989) 168 CLR 46'1 at 528 per Deane J (emphasis added); see also at 560 per Toohey J.

150 Ibid (emphasis added).

151 Ibid at 560.

152 Ibid at 528-529. His Honour also mentioned competency tests for professional practice at 529. However, such tests might well not amount to differential treatment in the first place unless they demanded a higher level of competency from non-resident applicants than resident applicants.

153 Goryl, Transcript of Proceedings (12 October 1993) at 36 and 39 (“there is an element of intuition at times in these situations”) (J Doyle QC); adopted at 64 (W Sofronoff QC).

154 Amalgamated Society (f Engineers u Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129.

155 Retirement of Sir Garfield Barwick as Chief Justice (1981) 148 CLR vat x; cf henry (1973) 128 CLR 482 at 488 per Barwick CJ.

156 Goryl Transcript of Proceedings (12 October 1993) at 64 (Brennan J) and 65 (Mc Hugh J).

157 As did Toohey J in Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 560.

158 Above rm 54-56.

159 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 559-560.

160 Ibid at 512.

161 Ibid at 512-513 (emphasis added). See also Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 484 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

162 Ibid at 513. See also G Ebbeck, “The Future for Section 117 as a Constitutional Guarantee” (1993) 4 PLR 89 at 95.

163 Ibid.

164 Ibid at 583.

165 Ibid at 583-584.

166 Ibid at 584.

167 Ibid (emphasis added). See also ibid at 492 per Mason CJ.

168 Ibid at 589.

169 Compare “political necessity”, attacked by Isaacs Jin Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 142 and 150-151.

170 Compare Saunders, C, “Concepts of Equality in the Australian Constitution” in G Lindell (ed), Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law (1994) at 214Google Scholar.

171 On the virtue of consistency, see Coper, M, “The High Court and the World of Policy” (1984) 14 FL Rev 294 at 299Google Scholar.

172 Qucrnsland Electricity Commission v Commonwealth (1985) 159 CLR 192.

173 Ibid at 217 (emphasis added).

174 Compare Commonwealth v Tasmania Cl983) 158 CLR 1 at 214-215 per Brennan J.

175 G Ebbeck, above n 162 at 92.

176 As Ebbeck herself later implicitly suggests: ibid at 95.

177 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 527-528 per Deane J. See also Lindell, G J, “Recent Developments in the Judicial Interpretation of the Australian Constitution” in G J Lindell (ed), Future Directions in Australian Constitutional Law (1994) at 26Google Scholar; L Zines and G J Lindell, above n 143 at 142; cf James v Commonwealth [1936] AC 578 at 614.

178 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 490-491 (emphasis added).

179 Ibid at 486 per Mason CJ, 504 per Brennan J and 541 per Dawson J.

180 L Zines and G J Lindell, above n 143 at 140; L Zines, above n 5 at 462.

181 The debate concerning methodology (see Re Australian Education Union; Ex parte Victoria (1995) 184 CLR 188; cf Re Lee; Ex parte Harper (1986) '160 CLR 430) and its significance for implied limitations to express provisions generally is noted: see T Blackshield, “Enginrnrs and implied immunities” in M Coper and G Williams (eds), How Many Cheers for Engineers? (1997); Blackshield, T and Williams, G, Australian Constitutional Law and Theory: Commentary and Materials (2nd ed 1998) at 862-863Google Scholar.

182 Free-Standing Principle: Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills (1992) 177 CLR 1; Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd u Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106. Text and Structure: Theophanous v Herald[,,- Weekly Times Ltd (1994) 182 CLR 104 at 199 per McHugh J; McGinty v vVi?stern Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140 at 231-236 per McHugh J; Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 187 CLR 520 at 566-567.

183 Stone, A, “Lange, Levy and the Direction of the Freedom of Political Communication” (1998) 1 UNSWLJ. 117 at 133Google Scholar.

184 See text at n 173 above.

185 Melbourne Corporation v Commonweallh (:1947) 74 CLR 31 al 78-83 per Dixon J.

186 Australian Railways Union o Victorian Railways Commissioners (1930) 44 CLR 319 at 390 per Dixon J;West v Commissioner of Taxation (NSW) (1937) 56 CLR 657 at 682 per Dixon J; Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Official Liquidator of EO Farley Ltd (1940) 63 CLR 278 at 313 per Dixon).

187 Tasmanian Dams (1983) 158 CLR 1 at 128 per Mason J;QEC (1985) 159 CLR 192;ACTV (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 163-164 per Brennan J, 200-202 per Dawson J and 241-244 per McHugh J; AEU (1995) 184 CLR 188 at 231 per Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ; Victoria o Commonwealth (1996) 187 CLR 416 at 498 per Brennan CJ, Toohey, Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow Jj. See also M Coper and G Williams (eds), The Cauldron of Constitutional Change (l997) at 59-79.

188 This factor has consistently been viewed as highly relevant to both implied immunities (see, eg, ACTV (1992) 177 CLR '106 at 242 per McHugh J) and the freedom of political discussion (see, eg, ACTV (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 227 per Mc Hugh J).

189 Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 493 per McHugh J. See also Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 489 per Mason CJ and at 519 per Brennan J; G Ebbeck, above n 48 at 33-34; G Ebbeck, above n 162 at 99.

190 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 486 per Mason CJ, at 503-505 per Brennan J, at 522 per Deane J, at 541 per Dawson J, at 555 per Toohey J, al 566-567 per Gaudron J and at 589-590 per McHugh J. See also C Pannam, above n 23 at 105.

191 Zines, L, “Sir Owen Dixon's Theory of Federalism” (1965) 1 FL Rev 221 at 233Google Scholar.

192 Above nn 119-121.

193 See text accompanying nn 116-117 above.

194 See also G Ebbeck, above n 162 at 95.

195 Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918, Pt VII.

196 Whether s 117 applies to the Commonwealth remains unresolved.

197 Compare Debates above n 23 vol 5 at 1781 (Symon).

198 Seen 106 above.

199 C Pannam, above n 23 al 148.

200 Ibid.

201 The US solution, distinguishing “political” rights such as the franchise (unprotected) from “non-political” rights (protected) (see Minor v Happersatt 21 Wall '162 (1875)) could not be accepted for s 117: ibid. Cf WA Wynes, above n 35 at 143.

202 See, in relation to the privileges and immunities clause, Ely, J H, Democracy and Distrust (1980) at 83 and 90-91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; J H Ely, above n 68 at 71; JD Varnt, above n 62 at 520-521; G J Simson, above n 62 at 384-385.

203 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 513 per Brennan J and at 584 per Mc Hugh J.

204 Ibid.

205 Ibid at 492.

206 Ibid at 528-529.

207 Compare Constitution, s 7 (Senate election franchise).

208 Street (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 521. See also C Ebbeck, above n 162 at 96-98;Doe 410 US 179 (1973).

209 Ibid at 572 (emphasis added). See also ibid at 546 per Dawson; Goryl (1994) 179 CLR 463 at 487 per Dawson and Toohey JJ.

210 J D Varat, above n 62 at 523.

211 Ibid (emphasis added).

212 L H Tribe, above n 62 at 544.

213 The rule attacked in Street was quintessentially parochial: (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 500 per Brennan].

214 Constitution, s 90; Ha v New South Wales (1997) 189 CLR 465.

215 See South Australia v Commonwealth (First Uniform Tax Case) (1942) 65 CLR 373; Victoria v Commonwealth (Second Uniform Tax Case) (1957) 99 CLR 575.

216 See T Blackshield and G Williams, above n 181 at 222-224 and 803-819.

217 The provision of federal funding cannot be ignored: cf G Ebbeck, above n 162 at 97-9.

218 Reform of Commonwealth-State fiscal relations on the basis of a goods and services tax would not affect this analysis because the nexus between taxing and spending will remain absent.

219 See, for example, Goryl, Transcript of Proceedings CJ2 October 1993) at 59-71 (W Sofronoff QC).

220 G Ebbeck, above n 162 at 99.