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Constitutional Implications from Representative Democracy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Jeremy Kirk
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Extract

There is undoubtedly a growing willingness in the High Court to find constitutional implications protecting individual freedoms or rights. There are a number of possible bases for this approach, including the separation of powers and the common law. In this context, the High Court's decisions in Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (No 2) (the Political Advertising case) and Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills (which together I shall call the “principal cases”) are very significant. A majority of six judges in the decisions held both that the Constitution entrenches the system of representative democracy and that this in tum implies constitutional protection of free speech on political matters. The two cases were handed down on the same day and must be read together as. the judges' reasoning for these conclusions overlap between the cases. The significance of the principal cases is twofold. They constitute the clearest acceptance by the Court to date of an implied constitutional limitation relating to individual freedom. More importantly, they establish a new basis for finding further constitutional implications. If freedom of political communication is constitutionally protected because it is essential to representative democracy, other freedoms and requirements might be similarly essential and be similarly protected.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 23 , Issue 1 , March 1995 , pp. 37 - 76
Copyright
Copyright © 1995 The Australian National University

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Footnotes

*

I wish to thank Associate Professor Geoffrey Lindell for his supervision of the preparation of a previous version of this article. My thanks are also due to Professor Leslie Zines and Ms Fiona Wheeler for their comments. All opinions and errors are, of course, my own.

References

1 Eg, Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991) 172 CLR 501; Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 501-502 per Gaudron J; Dietrich v R (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 326 per Deane J, at 362 per GaudronJ.

2 See Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 485-487 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 69 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

3 (1992) 177 CLR 106 (here after Political Advertising).

4 (1992) 177 CLR 1 (hereafter Nationwide).

5 Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ.

6 Nevertheless, I have distinguished between the two cases in the footnotes.

7 Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd (1994) 124 ALR 1, Stephens v West Australian Newspapers Ltd (1994) 124 ALR 80, Cunliffe v Commonwealth (1994) 124 ALR 120.

8 The judges describe the implication variously as a freedom, right, guarantee, limitation and prohibition.

9 Defined in ss 95B(6), 95C(6) and 95D(6).

10 Section 95B.

11 Section 95C.

12 Section 95D.

13 Section 95A.

14 Division 3.

15 Section 95H.

16 Sections 95L and 95M.

17 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 145-147.

18 Ibid at 171-175.

19 Ibid at 218-224.

20 Ibid at 236-246.

21 Ibid at 156-167.

22 Ibid at 188-202.

23 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 31 footnote 95 and 33-34 per Mason CJ, at 103 and 105 per McHughJ.

24 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 137-138 per Mason CJ, at 209-11 per Gaudron J, at 228-230 per McHugh J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 45-47 per Brennan J, at 69-72 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

25 Sections 1, 7, 24, 61, 62, 64 and 128.

26 (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 55-56.

27 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 69-70.

28 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 230.

29 Ibid at 138-140 per Mason CJ, at 211-212 per Gaudron J, at 230-231 per McHugh J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 47-50 per Brennan J, at 72 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

30 Notably, from the United Kingdom: Attorney-General v Times Newspapers Limited [1974] AC 273 at 315; Attorney-General v Guardian Newspapers Limited (No 2) [1990] 1 AC 109 at 258,270 and 283; Hector v Attorney-General of Antigua and Barbuda [1990] 2 AC 312 at 318. From the European Court of Human Rights: Sunday Times v United Kingdom (1979) 2 EHRR 245; The Observer and The Guardian v United Kingdom (1991) 14 EHRR 153. From Canada: Re Alberta Legislation [1938] 2 DLR 81 at 107-109 and 119-120; Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, Local 580 v Dolphin Delivery Limited (1986) 33 DLR (4th) 174 at 183-184; Switzman v Ebling (1957) 7 DLR (2d) 337 at 358 and 369-371.

31 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 140-141 per Mason CJ, at 215 and 217 per GaudronJ, at 231-232 per McHugh J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 48-51 per Brennan J, at 72-75, per Deane and Toohey JJ.

32 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 48.

33 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 232-233.

34 Ibid at 241-245 and 246.

35 Ibid at 184-187.

36 Ibid at 142-144 per Mason CJ, at 150-151 and 157 per Brennan J, at 217-218 per Gaudron J, at 234-235 per McHugh J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 51 per Brennan J, at 76-77 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

37 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 157.

38 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 50.

39 Ibid at 52.

40 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 161-162.

41 Ibid at 188, generally at 188-191.

42 Ibid at 175.

43 See comments in Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 52 per Brennan J, at 75-76 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 176-177 per Deane and Toohey JJ, at 184 per Dawson J, at 217 per Gaudron J, at 246 per McHugh J. See Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd (1994) 124 ALR 1 and Stephens v West Australian Newspapers Ltd (1994) 124 ALR 80. See also discussion in L Zines, “A Judicially Created Bill of Rights?” (1994) 16 Sydney LR 166 at 179-180.

44 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 142 per Mason CJ, at 162-163 per Brennan J, at 168-169 per Deane and Toohey JJ, at 216-217 per Gaudron J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 75-76 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

45 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 150 per Brennan J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 76 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

46 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 50-51.

47 (1912) 16 CLR 99 at 108-109 and 109-110; see also Pioneer Express Pty Ltd v Hotchkiss (1958) 101 CLR 536 at 550, 560 and 566, and the United States cases of Crandall v State of Nevada 73 US 35 (1867) at 44 and Slaughterhouse cases 83 US 36 (1872).

48 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 60 per Brennan J, at 73-74 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 213-214 per Gaudron J, at 232 per McHugh J.

49 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 139 per Mason CJ; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 79 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

50 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 212.

51 Ibid at 227, 232, 233 and 234.

52 Ibid at 136, 137-138, 139-140 and 145 per Mason CJ, at 187 per Dawson J, at 229 ai:id 231-232 per McHugh J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 47 and 51 per Brennan J, at 71-75 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

53 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 137-138 per Mason CJ; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 70 and 72 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

54 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 210, 212 and 215; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 94. Emphasis added.

55 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 48 per Brennan J; see also ibid at 72 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 139 and 145 per Mason CJ, at 211-212 per Gaudron J, at 230-231 per McHugh J.

56 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 94 per Gaudron J; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 210,212 and 215 per GaudronJ.

57 D Held, Models of Democracy (1987) at 2; G Maddox, Australian Democracy in Theory and Practice (2nd ed 1991) at 64; The Oxford English Dictionary.

58 D Jaensch and M Teichmann, The Macmillan Dictionary of Australian Politics (1979) at 205.

59 P P Craig, Public Law and Democracy in the United Kingdom and the United States of America (1990) at 4-5; R Dworkin, “The Forum of Principle” (1981) 56 New York University Law Review 469 at 502; B Gaze and M Jones, Law, Liberty and Australian Democracy (1990) at 17; G Maddox, above n 57 at 64; R R S Tracey, “The Legal Approach to Democratic Control of Trade Unions” (1985) 15 MULR 177 at 182.

60 (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 57; approved by a majority of the Canadian Supreme Court in Reference re: Electoral Boundaries Commission Act (1991) 81 DLR (4th) 16 at 38.

61 Eg, Cheatle v R (1993) 177 CLR 541; see also L Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (3rd ed 1992) at 16.

62 Justice Toohey, “A Government of Laws, and Not of Men?” (1993) 4 PLR 158 at 171.

63 Ibid at 169.

64 S Bottomley, N Gunningham and S Parker, Law in Context (1991) at 12-33; D Held, above n 57 at 41; D Jaensch and M Teichmann, above n 58 at 138-139; CB Macpherson, The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy (1977) at 2.

65 G Maddox, above n 57 at 97 and 450; see also L F Crisp, Australian National Government (4th ed 1978) at 127-128; W Ivor Jennings, The British Constitution (5th ed 1966) at 203 and 211.

66 S Bottomley et al, above n 64 at 10; J Whyte, “Legality and Legitimacy: the Problem of Judicial Review of Legislation” (1987) 12 Queen's LJ 1 at 13.

67 G Winterton, “Extra-Constitutional Notions in Australian Constitutional Law” (1986) 16 FL Rev 223 at 228-229.

68 See McGraw-Hinds (Aust) P/L v Smith (1979) 144 CLR 633 at 668 and 670; R v Director-General of Social Welfare (Victoria); Ex parte Henry (1975) 133 CLR 369 at 388; Seamen's Union of Australia v Utah Development Co (1978) 144 CLR 120 at 157; Uebergang v Australian Wheat Board (1980) 145 CLR 266 at 311-312; Victoria v Australian Building Construction Employees' and Builders Labourers' Federation (1982) 152 CLR 25 at 108-112.

69 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 212 footnotes 5 and 6.

70 J Whyte, above n 66 at 8-9.

71 TR S Allan, “The Limits of Parliamentary Sovereignty” [1985] PL 614 at 615-622 and 623 footnote 34; R Dworkin, “Equality, Democracy, and Constitution: We the People in Court” (1990) 28 Alberta Law Review 324.

72 D Held, above n 57, chapters 2 and 3; C B Macpherson, above n 64, chapters 2 and 3.

73 1751-1836.

74 D Held, above n 57 at 61-6; J Madison (B Wright ed), The Federalist (1966) No 10 at 129-136

75 W Harrison Moore, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (1st ed 1902) at 328; C B Macpherson, above n 64 at 15-16.

76 1748-1832 and 1773-1836.

77 CB Macpherson, above n 64 at 35-7; D Held, above n 57 at 66-67.

78 1806-73.

79 CB Macpherson, above n 64 at 47; D Held, above n 57 at 86.

80 D Held, above n 57 at 94-95; CB Macpherson, above n 64 at 56-59.

81 P P Craig, above n 59 at 44.

82 G Maddox, above n 57 at 84-85; D Held, above n 57 at 158-159 and 165-166.

83 D Held, above n 57 at 187-95.

84 C Kukathas, D Lovell and W Maley, The Theory of Politics: An Australian Perspective (1990) at 3 and 9-10; M James, “Introduction”, at 2-3, and “The Constitution in Australian Political Thought”, at 22, in M James (ed), The Constitutional Challenge (1982); TR S Allan, “Legislative Supremacy and the Rule of Law: Democracy and Constitutionalism” (1985) 44 CLJ 111 at 139-140.

85 FA Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty (1979) Vol 3 at 137, 5 and 39.

86 H Pitkin, The Concept of Representation (1967) at 6 and 232-235.

87 AH Birch, Representative and Responsible Government (1964) at 13-17.

88 W Harrison Moore, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (1st ed 1902) at 327-329; also 2nd ed 1910 at 78 and 612-616 - see references to this in Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 136 and 139-140 per Mason CJ, at 229 per McHugh J .

89 C B Macpherson, above n 64 at 6-7.

90 R Nozick, Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974).

91 T Hobbes (edited by CB Macpherson), Leviathan (1968).

92 R v JB Sweeney; Ex parte Northwest Exports P/L (1981) 35 ALR 135 (High Court) at 142 per Stephen J; Switzman v Elbling (1957) 7 DLR (2d) 337 (Canadian Supreme Court) at 358 per Rand J (& Kellock J); BLF v Minister for Industrial Relations (1986) 7 NSWLR 372 at 405 per Kirby P; Grace Bible Church v Reedman (1984) 36 SASR 376 at 390 per Millhouse J; Wright v McLeod (1983) 51 ALR 483 (Full Federal Court) at 502 per Smithers J; at 514 per Evatt and Northrop JJ, at 533 per Sheppard J; see also Sir Owen Dixon, Jesting Pilate (1965) at 106.

93 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 136, 137-138, 139"140 and 145 per Mason CJ, at 187 per Dawson J, at 229 and 231-232 per McHugh J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 ac 47 and 51 per Brennan J, at 71-75 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

94 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 135-136 per Mason CJ, at 182-183 per Dawson J, at 228-229 per McHugh J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 43-44 per Brennan J.

95 M Coper, “The High Court and Free Speech” (1994) 16 Sydney LR 185 at 190-191; Justice M Kirby, Canberra Times 8 May 1994; H P Lee, “The Australian High Court and Implied Fundamental Guarantees” [1993] PL 606 at 627-8; Justice B McLachlin, “Southey Memorial Lecture: The Canadian Charter and the Democratic Process” (1991) 18 MULR 350 at 353; Justice Toohey, above n 62 at 171.

96 R Dworkin, above n 59 at 502-503.

97 Ibid at 502; P P Craig, above n 59 at 3-5 and 80.

98 R Bassett, The Essentials of Parliamentary Democracy (1935) at 116-117; Jeremy Bentham - see D Held, above n 57 at 67; A H Birch, above n 87 at 17; A Cox, The Court and the Constitution (1987) at 212; L F Crisp, above n 65 at 132; WI Jennings, above n 65 at 208-209; Rosa Luxemburg - see L F Crisp, above n 65 at 127; H Mayo quoted in B Gaze and M Jones, above n 59 at 19; Justice McLachlin, above n 95 at 354; James Mill - see D Held, above n 57 at 67; John Stuart Mill - see D Held, above n 57 at 93; H Pitkin, above n 86 at 234-235; Joseph Schumpeter - see D Held, above n 57 at 177; E Thompson, “A Bit of Paper Called a Bill of Rights” in S Encel, D Home and E Thompson (eds), Change the Rules (1977) at 86-87; L Zines, Constitutional Change in the Commonwealth (1991) at 34.

99 Eg, Attorney-General (Vic); Ex rel Black v Commonwealth (1980) 146 CLR 559 at 578 per Barwick CJ.

100 Cf Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 230 per McHugh J.

101 RR Garran, The Coming Commonwealth (1897) at 149.

102 (1993) 177 CLR 541 at 560-561.

103 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 150 per Brennan J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 76 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

104 Some of the freedoms discussed, in the following text will have more significance for the States and Territories than for the Commonwealth, if they are held to be bound. Matters such as public assembly and association are areas of activity more usually regulated at that level.

105 Constitution, s 51(39).

106 Eg, Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 29-34 per Mason CJ, at 101-105 per McHugh J; see also Davis v Commonwealth (1988) 166 CLR 79.

107 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 50-51 per Brennan J.

108 L Zines, above n 61 at 131.

109 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 50-51 per Brennan J, at 72 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 215 per Gaudron J, see also at 138-139 per Mason CJ; cf at 231-232 per McHughJ.'

110 Cf Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 142-144 per Mason CJ, at 150-151 per Brennan . J, at 217-218 per Gaudron J, at 234-235 per McHugh J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 51 per Brennan J, at 76-77 per Deane and Toohey JJ; see also Castlemaine Tooheys Ltd v South Australia (1990) 169 CLR 436 at 472-473 (re s 92), Street v Queensland BarAssociation (1989) 168 CLR 461 at 492-493, 512-513, 560, 572 and 584 (res 117).

111 (1992) 176 CLR 77, see especially at 101 per Mason CJ, Toohey and McHugh JJ.

112 Ibid at 121 per Deane J (dissenting).

113 T D Campbell, “Democracy, Human Rights, and Positive Law” (1994) 16 Sydney LR 195 at 205; L _F Crisp, above n 65 at 127; J H Ely, Democracy and Distrust: A Theory of Judicial Review (1980) at 122; K D Ewing, “The Legal Regulation of Electoral Campaign Financing in Australia: A Preliminary Study” (1992) 22 UWAL Rev 239 at 240-241; D Held, above n 57 at 2; G Maddox, above n 57 at 453-456; J Whyte, above n 66 at 6.

114 G Maddox, above n 57 at 65.

115 R Dworkin, above n 71 at 337-338; K D Ewing, above n 113 at 240-241; J Whyte, above n 66 at 7; see also Justice McLachlin, above n 95 at 353; R v Smithers; Ex parte Benson (1912) 16 CLR 99 at 109-110 per Barton J.

116 G Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited (1987) Vol 1 at 32-33; G de Q Walker, “Dicey's Dubious Dogma of ParliamentarySovereignty” (1985) 59 ALJ 276 at 283; cf R Dworkin, above n 59 at 506-507.

117 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 138-140 per Mason CJ, at 211-212 per Gaudron J, at 230-232 per McHugh J;Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 47-50 per Brennan J, at 72 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

118 T D Campbell, above n 113 at 203; D Z Cass, “Through the Looking Glass: The High Court and the Right to Free Speech” (1993) 4 PLR 229 at 236; D Tucker, “Representation-Reinforcing Review: Arguments about Political Advertising in Australia and the United States” (1994) 16 Sydney LR 274 at 284-286.

119 TD Campbell, above n 113 at 201-204.

120 PP Craig, above n 59 at 197-200.

121 Eg, Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 141 per Mason CJ, at 212 per Gaudron J.

122 Switzman v Elbling (1957) 7 DLR (2d) 337 at 358 (emphasis added); see also Saumur v City of Quebec and Attorney-General of Quebec [1953] 4 DLR 641 at 671 and 672-673 per Rand J; Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, Local 580 v Dolphin Delivery Ltd (1986) 33 DLR (4th) 174 at 183 per McIntyre J (and six other judges).

123 Cf Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v Virginia Citizens Consumer Council Inc 425 US 748 (1976) at 765 per Blackmun J (for seven judges).

124 Cf Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade v Magno (1992) 37 FCR 298 at 346 per Einfeld J.

125 Melser v Police [1967] NZLR 437 (CA) at 444 per Turner J and at 445 per McCarthy J; Hubbard v Pitt [1976] 1 QB 142 at 178-179 per Lord Denning MR.

126 United States v Cruikshank 92 US 542 (1876) at 551-552.

127 B Gaze and M Jones, above n 59 at 117; eg Ex parte Lewis (1888) 21 QBD 191 at 197 per Wills J; Hubbard v Pitt [1976] 1 QB 142 at 187 per Stamp LJ; Campbell v Samuels (1980) 23 SASR 389 at 393.

128 F Brennan SJ, Too much Order with Too Little Law (1983) at 262; GE Fitzgerald QC, Report of a Commission of Inquiry (1989) at 143; Hubbard v Pitt [1976] 1 QB 142 at 178 per Lord Denning MR.

129 F Brennan SJ, above n 128 at 2 and 19-31.

130 Eg, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade v Magno (1992) 37 FCR 298 at 346 per Einfeld J; see also Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, Local 580 v Dolphin Delivery Ltd (1986) 33 DLR (4th) 174 at 186-187 per McIntyre J (for the Canadian Supreme Court); cf Attorney - General of Canada v Dupond (1978) 84 DLR (3d) 420 at 439 per Beetz J (and 5 other judges).

131 Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 194-195, 197-198 and 200 per Dixop J; at 206, 207 and 209 per McTiernan J; at 226-227 per Williams J; at 242 Webb J; see comfnent, G Rumble, “The Role of the Courts in the Protection of Individual Rights through Constitutional Interpretation” in J McMillan (ed), Administrative Law: Does the Public Benefit? (1992) at 33-34.

132 Eg, Shelton v Tucker 364 US 479 (1960) at 486; Griswold v Connecticut 381 US 479 (1965) at 483-4; Healy v James 408 US 169 (1972) at 181.

133 National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People v Alabama 357 US 449 (1958) at 460 per Harlan J for the whole Court.

134 354 US 234 (1957) at 250 per Warren CJ (for four judges).

135 M James, above n 84 at 28; D Held, above n 57 at 196-201.

136 J Warhurst, “Interest Groups” in J Summers, D Woodward and A Parkin (eds), Government, Politics and Power in Australia (4th ed 1990) at 306.

137 (1951) 83 CLR 1, see argument at 83-84 and at 168-169 per Latham CJ.

138 Cf Constitution, s 116.

139 This view of rights is arguably supported by Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses Inc v Commonwealth (1943) 67 CLR 116 at 123 per Latham CJ; see also Brown v R (1986) 160 CLR 171 at 195 per Brennan J, at 204 per Deane J.

140 Crandall v State of Nevada 73 US 35 (1867) at 44 per Miller J, approved by a majority in Slaughterhouse cases 83 US 36 (1872); see also United States v Cruikshank 92 US 542 (1876) at 552.

141 (1912) 16 CLR 99 at 108-109 per Griffith CJ, at 109-110 per Barton J; see also Pioneer Express Pty Ltd v Hotchkiss (1958) 101 CLR 536 at 550 per Dixon CJ, at 560 per Taylpr J, at 566 per Menzies J.

142 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 60 per Brennan J, at 73-74 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 213-214 per Gaudron J, at 232 per McHugh J.

143 Reference re: Electoral Boundaries Commission Act (1991) 81 DLR (4th) 16 at 35 per McLachlin J (and 4 other judges).

144 (1994) 124 ALR 120.

145 H Pitkin, above n 86 at 234-235; C B Macpherson, above n 64 at 7.

146 Eg, E Thompson, “Elections and Democracy” in S Encel, D Home and E Thompson (eds), Change the Rules (1977) at 173-179; J McMillan, G Evans and H Storey, Australia's Constitution: Time for Change? (1983) at 251-254.

147 J McMillan et al, above n 146 at 253-256.

148 Sykes v Cleary (1992) 176 CLR 77 at 121 per Deane J (dissenting); Lovell v FLAIEU (1978) 22 ALR 704 per Northrop J at 729; L F Crisp, above n 65 at 132.

149 Williams v Rhodes 393 US 23 (1968); cf Clements v Fashing 457 US 957 (1982).

150 Jenness v Fortson 403 US 431 (1971).

151 Section 44.

152 (1972) 127 CLR 665 at 669, cf at 672; cf Re Cusack (1985) 66 ALR 93 at 95 per Wilson J.

153 (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 146-147 per Mason CJ, at 172-175 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

154 Short v Wellings (1951) 72 CAR 84 at 87-88; Valentine v Butcher (1981) 51 FLR 127 at 139; Scott v Jess (1984) 56 ALR 379 at 386-388 and 403-404; Darroch v Tanner (1987) 16 FCR 368.

155 B Costar, “Electoral Systems” in J Summers, D Woodward and A Parkin (eds), Government, Politics and Power in Australia (4th ed 1990) at 183; CB Macpherson, above n 64 at 7.

156 See Athens, Re G Maddox, above n 57 at 65; Re Bentham and James Mill, see D Held, above n 57 at 69; JS Mill, see CB Macpherson, al:>ove n 64 at 57-58.

157 L F Crisp, above n 65 at 136-137.

158 Judd v McKeon (1926) 38 CLR 380 at 385 per Isaacs J; King v Jones (1972) 128 CLR 221 at 266 per StephenJ; Reynolds v Sims 377 US 533 (1964) at 561-562 per Warren CJ (for 6 judges).

159 Attorney-General (Cth); Ex rel McKinlay v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 36 per McTiernan and Jacobs JJ, at 69 per Murphy J; see also Deane and Toohey JJ in Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 72.

160 (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 18-20 per Barwick CJ, at 44 per Gibbs J, at 56-57 per Stephen J, at 62 per Mason J; see also Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 137 per Mason CJ, at 185 and 188 per Dawson J.

161 As interpreted in R v Pearson; Ex parte Sipka (1983) 152 CLR 254.

162 (1975) 135 CLR at 56.

163 L Tribe, “The Puzzling Persistence of Process-Based Constitutional Theories” (1980) 89 Yale LJ 1063 at 1071.

164 (1993) 177 CLR 541 at 560-561.

165 Judd v McKean (1926) 38 CLR 380, also Faderson v Bridger (1971) 126 CLR 271.

166 See especially Baker v Carr 369 US 186 (1962); Gray v Sanders 372 US 368 (1963); Wesberry v Sanders376 US 1 (1964); Reynolds v Sims 377 US 533 (1964); Kirkpatrick v Preisler 394 US 526 (1969); Karcher v Daggett 462 US 725 (1983).

167 Reference re: Electoral Boundaries Commission Act (1991) 81 DLR (4th) 16, 3 judges dissenting.

168 (1975) 135 CLR 1 at 36 and 61.

169 McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR at 23, 36-7, 45-7, 57 and 62-3; Reference re: Electoral Boundaries Commission Act (1991) 81 DLR (4th) 16 at 37-38.

170 L F Crisp, above n 65 at 138-140.

171 Section 66.

172 McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR at 72 per Murphy J.

173 Sections 7 and 24 respectively.

174 Baker v Carr 369 US 186 (1962) at 268 per Frankfurter J (dissenting).

175 J H Ely, above n 113 at 120-121.

176 Ibid at 123-5; McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR at 70 per Murphy J.

177 McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR at 17, 21, 46 and 57-58; Baker v Carr 369 US 186 (1962)at 300 per Frankfurter J (dissenting); Wesberry v Sanders 376 US 1 (1964) at 30 per Harlan J (dissenting).

178 Reference re: Electoral Boundaries Commission Act (1991) 81 DLR (4th) 16 at 36 and 38.

179 Reynolds v Sims 377 US 533 (1964) per Warren CJ (for 6 judges) at 562.

180 Reynolds v Sims 377 US 533 (1964) at 577-580; Karcher v Daggett 462 US 725 (1983) at 730-731.

181 Wesberry v Sanders 376 US 1 (1964) at 8; Reynolds v Sims 377 US 533 (1964) at 555; Reference re: Electoral Boundaries Commission Act (1991) 81 DLR (4th) 16 at 22 per Cory J (and 2 other judges, dissenting).

182 Reynolds v Sims 377 US 533 (1964) at 565.

183 Eg, W Harrison Moore, above n 88, 2nd ed, at 78; Sir Owen Dixon, above n 92 at 101-102; R Menzies, Central Power in the Australian Commonwealth (1967) at 54; McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR at 24 per Barwick CJ.

184 McKinlay (1975) 135 CLR at 71-72 per Murphy J.

185 GE Fitzgerald, above n 128 at 127.

186 Baker v Carr 369 US 186 (1962) per Frankfurter J (dissenting) at 270.

187 (1975) 135 CLR at 28-33, 51-54, 60 and 63.

188 Davis v Bandemer 478 US 109 (1986).

189 Ibid at 127-133 and 141-142 per White J Goined by Brennan, Marshall and Blac).<munJJ).

190 Ibid at 128-129.

191 G Maddox, above n 57 at 425-426.

192 Note comments in the principal cases: Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 137 per Mason CJ; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 71 footnote 25 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

193 I Thynne and J Goldring, Accountability and Control (1987) at 237; G E Fitzgerald, above n 128 at 124, 126 and 129.

194 R Cranston, Law, Government and Public Policy (1987) at 98.

195 C K Allen, Democracy and the Individual (1945) at 15-17; L F Crisp, above n 65 at 127; Howard, The Constitution, Power and Politics (1980) at 177.

196 PP Craig, above n 59 at 100-101 and 114; see also R Bassett, above n 98 at 106-107.

197 Cf Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 475 per Brennan J, at 485-489 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

198 See Victoria v ABCE & BLF (1982) 152 CLR 25 at 110-112 per Murphy J.

199 J H Ely, above n 113, ch 6; see also US v Carolene Products Company 304 US 144 (1938) at 152 footnote 4; W Sadurski “Last Among Equals: Minorities and Australian Judge-Made Law” (1989) 63 ALJ 474.

200 J H Ely, above n 113 at 103.

201 R Dworkin, above n 59 at 510-516; T Sandalow “The Distrust of Politics” (1981) 56 New York University LR 446 at 461-468; L Tribe, above n 163 at 1072-1079.

202 (1912) 15 CLR 355 at 358,360 and 362-363.

203 Charles Evans Hughes, quoted in J Thomson, “Principles and Theories of Constitutional Interpretation and Adjudication” (1982) 13 MULR 597 at 599.

204 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129.

205 G Craven, “The Crisis of Constitutional Literalism in Australia” in HP Lee and G Winterton (eds) Australian Constitutional Perspectives (1992) at 1-4; L Zines, above n 61 at 340-341.

206 West v Commissioner of Taxation (NSW) (1937) 56 CLR 657 at 681-682; Australian National Airways Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1945) 71 CLR 29 at 85; Essendon Corporation v Criterion Theatres Ltd (1947) 74 CLR 1 at 22-23.

207 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 146; Commonwealth v Colonial Combing, Spinning and Weaving Co Ltd (1922) 31 CLR 421 at 446; Commonwealth v Kreglinger & Fernau Ltd and Bardsley (1926) 37 CLR 393 at 411-413.

208 Re limitations on the Commonwealth, see, eg: R v Coldham; Ex parte Australian Social Welfare Union (1983) 153 CLR 297 at 313; Queensland Electricity Commission v Commonwealth (1985) 159 CLR 192 at 205, 217, 226, 231, 247 and 260-262; Re possible limitations on the States, see, eg: Commonwealth v Bogle (1953) 89 CLR 229 at 259-260 per Fullagar J; Uther v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1947) 74 CLR 508 at 527-530 per Dixon J; Commonwealth v Cigamatic Pty Ltd (1962) 108 CLR 372 at 377-378 per Dixon CJ; cf Av Hayden (1984) 156 CLR 532.

209 Commonwealth v Kreglinger & Fernau Ltd and Bardsley (1926) 37 CLR 393 at 411-412 per Isaacs J; Australian National Airways Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1945) 71 CLR 29 at 85 per Dixon J; Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 193 per Dixon J; Lamshed v Lake (1958) 99 CLR 132 at 144-145 per Dixon CJ.

210 Melbourne Corporation v Commonwealth (1947) 74 CLR 31(hereafter State Banking); Queensland Electricity Commission v Commonwealth (1985) 159 CLR 192.

211 Eg, State Banking (1947) 74 CLR 31 at 61 per Latham CJ; West's case (1937) 56 CLR 657 at 668-669 per Latham CJ; Victoria v Commonwealth (1971) 122 CLR 353 (hereafter Payroll Tax) especially at 372 per Barwick CJ (and Owen J), see also McTieman J.

212 L Zines, above n 61 at 338-339.

213 Davis v Commonwealth (1988) 166 CLR 79 at 103 per Wilson and Dawson JJ, at 117-119 per Toohey J.

214 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 135.

215 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 42-44 per Brennan J; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 181 and 186 per Dawson J; see also Brennan J in Queensland Electricity Commission v Commonwealth (1985) 159 CLR 192 at 231.

216 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 230-232.

217 Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 69; see also Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 483- 485 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

218 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 214-215.

219 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 155; Australian National Airways Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1945) 71 CLR 29 at 85 per Dixon J; State Banking (1947) 74 CLR 31 at 83 per Dixon J; Payroll Tax (1971) 122 CLR 353 at 401-402 per Windeyer J, at 417 per Gibbs j; Queensland Electricity Commission v Commonwealth (1985) 159 CLR 192 at 212 per Mason J, at 231 per Brennan J; Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 486 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

220 See Payroll Tax (1971) 122 CLR 353 at 396 per Windeyer J; L Zines, above n 61 at 11-15.

221 G Sawer, “Implication and the Constitution” (1948) 4 Res Judicatae 15; L Zines, above n 61 at 345-346; S Gageler, “Foundations of Australian Federalism and the Role of Judicial Review” (1987) 17 FL Rev 162 at 180-181.

222 (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 142 and 145.

223 M Coper, “The High Court and the World of Policy” (1984) 14 FL Rev 294 at 295-6; S Gageler, above n 221 at 178-181; Sir Anthony Mason, “The Role of a Constitutional Court in a Federation” (1986) 16 FL Rev 1 at 5; L Zines, above n 61 at 381-382.

224 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 134.

225 Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 485 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 69-70 per Deane and Toohey JJ; Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 209-211 per Gaudron J.

226 R v Joske; Ex parte ABCE and BLF (1974) 130 CLR 87 at 90 per Barwick CJ.

227 (1956) 94 CLR 254 at 271-278 (High Court); (1957) 95 CLR 529 at 537 (Privy Council).

228 See above n 225.

229 Eg Miller v TCN Channel Nine Pty Ltd (1986) 161 CLR 556 at 581 per Murphy J.

230 (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 192-194.

231 Eg, Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 29-34 per Mason CJ, at 101-105 McHugh J; see also Davis v Commonwealth (1988) 166 CLR 79.

232 Political Advertising (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 135-136 per Mason CJ, at 182-183 per Dawson J, at 228-229 per McHugh J; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 43-44 per Brennan J, cf Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455 at 484-485 per Deane and Toohey JJ.

233 See eg Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, 3rd Session, (1898) Vol 1 at 664-691; W Harrison Moore, above n 88, 1st edition at 327-329, 2nd ed at 612-616; J A La Nauze, The Making of the Australian Constitution (1972) at 227-232.

234 J J Doyle, “Constitutional Law: 'At the Eye of the Storm'” (1993) 23 UWAL Rev 15 at 23.

235 G Craven, “After Literalism, What?” (1992) 18 MULR 874 at 893 and 898.

236 Engineers (1920) 28 CLR 129 at 148-149 and 152.

237 Jumbunna Coal Mine NL v Victorian Coal Miners' Association (1908) 6 CLR 309 at 367-368 per O'Connor J, approved R v Coldham; Ex parte Australian Social Welfare Union (1983) 153 CLR 297 at 313-314; R v Public Vehicles Licensing Appeal Tribunal (Tas); Ex parte Australian National Airways Pty Ltd (1964) 113 CLR 207 at 225, approved New South Wales v Commonwealth (1990) 169 CLR 482 (hereafter Incorporation case) at 498 and 506.

238 Sir Daryl Dawson, “Intention and the Constitution - Whose Intent?” (1990) 6 Australian Bar Review 93 at 94; G Craven, above n 205 at 2.

239 Cole v Whitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360 at 385-392; Port MacDonnell Professional Fishermen's Association Inc v South Australia (1989) 168 CLR 340 at 376-378; Incorporation case (1990) 169 CLR 482 at 501-503.

240 G Kennett, “Constitutional Interpretation in the Corporations Case” (1990) 19 FL Rev 223 at 238-241; Sir Daryl Dawson, above n 238 at 101.

241 (1975) 135 CLR 1.

242 (1986) 161 CLR 556 at 569 per Gibbs CJ, at 579 per Mason J, at 592 per Wilson J, at 615 per Brennan J, at 636 per Dawson J.

243 Note, eg, Engineers (1920) 28 CLR at 151-152; see also above n 183.

244 G Craven, above n 235at 874-882; see also Sir Anthony Mason, above n 223 at 5 and 23.

245 J J Doyle, above n 234 at 29-30.

246 SOS (Mowbray) Pty Ltd v Mead (1972) 124 CLR 529 at 574-575 per Windeyer J.

247 Constitution, s 128.

248 Justice Toohey, above n 62 at 173.

249 State Banking (1947) 74 CLR 31 at 82 per Dixon J; P N Bhagwati (former Chief Justice of India), “The Role of the Judiciary in the Democratic Process: Balancing Activism and Judicial Restraint” (1992) 18 Commonwealth Law Bulletin 1262 at 1265; see also Sir Anthony Mason, above n 223 at 4-5 and “A Bill of Rights for Australia?” (1989) 5 Australian Bar-Review 79 at 82.

250 J J Doyle, above n 234 at 27; DJ Galligan, “Judicial Review and Democratic Principles: Two Theories” (1983) 57 ALJ 69 at 69; J Goldsworthy, “The Constitutional Protection of Human Rights in Australia” in G Craven (ed), Australian Federation: Towards the Second Century (1992) at 162; Sir Anthony Mason, above n 249 at 82.

251 T D Campbell, above n 113 at 200-201.

252 (1990) 169 CLR 436 at 473 per Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Dawson and Toohey JJ; see also Griswold v Connecticut 381 US 479 (1965) at 511-513 per Black J (dissenting).

253 Sir Anthony Mason, above n 249 at 81.

254 Justice McHugh, “The Law-making Function of the Judicial Process - Part II” (1988) 62 ALJ 116 at 122.

255 J H Ely, above n 113, ch 3.

256 Eg, Universal Declaration of Human Rights; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. '

257 Sir Anthony Mason, above n 223 at 5 and 23; Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42 per Brennan J.

258 Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 42.

259 McHugh, above n 254 at 122.

260 J H Ely, above n 113 at 63-68; S Lee, “Comment” [1985] PL 632 at 633.

261 T Sandalow, above n 201 at 459.

262 K D Ewing, above n 113 at 241-242 and 255-256; P Creighton, “The Implied Guarantee of Free Political Communication” (1993) 23 UWAL Rev 163 at 168-169.

263 TR S Allan, above n 84 at 119; TD Campbell, above n 113 at 208; K D Ewing, above n 113 at 242.

264 Eg, AC Hutchinson and A Petter, “Private Rights/Public Wrongs: The Liberal Lie of the Charter” (1988) 38 University of Toronto LJ 278.

265 Lochner v New York 198 US 45 (1905).

266 Eg, Ferguson v Skrupa 372 US 726 (1963) at 730; Griswold v Connecticut 381 US 479 (1965) at 482 per Douglas J (for five judges); see also J H Ely, above n 113 at 14.

267 (1988) 165 CLR 360.

268 Miller v TCN Channel Nine Pty Ltd (1986) 161 CLR 556 at 571 per Mason J; see also Miller at 618 per Deane J; SOS (Mowbray) Pty Ltd v Mead (1972) 124 CLR 529 at 574 per Windeyer J; North Eastern Dairy Co Ltd v Dairy Industry Authority of NSW (1975) 134 CLR 559 at 615 per Mason J; Buck v Bavone (1976) 135 CLR 110 at 132-133 per Murphy J.

269 Eg, R Dworkin, above n 71; D Feldman, “Democracy, the Rule of Law and Judicial Review” (1990) 19 FL Rev 1; Justice Toohey, above n 62; J Whyte, above n 66.

270 Sir Anthony Mason, above n 249 at 81; Justice McHugh, above n 254 at 123; Justice Toohey, above n 62 at 172-174.

271 J Goldsworthy, above n 250 at 170-171.

272 Justice Toohey, above n 62 at 173.

273 Griswold v Connecticut 381 US 479 (1965) at 519 per Black J (dissenting).

274 M Coper, above n 95 at 191; Justice McHugh, above n 254 at 121-122.

275 Constitution, s 72.

276 BLF v Minister for Industrial Relations (1986) 7 NSWLR 372 at 405 per Kirby P; see also G Winterton, above n 67 at 234 and 239; L Zines, above n 98 at 51; Nationwide (1992) 177 CLR 1 at 44 per Brennan J.

277 Eg, J H Ely, above n 113; US v Carolene Products Company 304 US 144 (1938) at 152 footnote 4.

278 P P Craig, above n 59 at 101; R Dworkin, above n 59 at 502-510.

279 L Tribe, above n 163 at 1064.

280 See above n 98.

281 D Galligan, above n 250 at 77-78.

282 PP Craig, above n 59 at 114.

283 L Tribe, above n 163 at 1078.