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The use of Foreign Law by the High Court of Australia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2025

Sarah Spottiswood
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Abstract

Justices of the High Court of Australia have a broad discretion to follow foreign judicial decisions based on whether they consider a decision to be persuasive. But it is difficult to assess what it is about a foreign decision that makes it likely to be followed by the High Court. This has created uncertainty that is problematic for both litigants and the court. To help address the uncertainty associated with the High Court's use of foreign decisions, this article identifies common factors that explain when the High Court is likely to follow foreign decisions. By drawing on theories of persuasive authority and closely analysing decisions from 2015 and 2016, I argue that the High Court is more likely to follow foreign decisions that: (1) are about legislation or instruments with similar words to those in dispute; (2) emanate from certain jurisdictions; (3) are from apex or appellate courts; (4) are raised by litigants; and (5) reflect values common to the Australian legal system. Conversely, the area of law, international consensus and the date of foreign decisions are unlikely to influence the High Court's willingness to follow foreign decisions. These factors can help litigants use foreign decisions effectively and may be used by legal scholars to scrutinise the legitimacy of the High Court's use of foreign decisions and to address the normative question of how the High Court should use foreign law.

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Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 46 , Issue 2 , June 2018 , pp. 161 - 191
Copyright
Copyright © 2018 The Australian National University

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Footnotes

I would like to thank Dr John Allison of the University of Cambridge for his supervision, advice and encouragement. I would also like to thank Tim Mason, Alice Taylor, Duncan Wallace and the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on earlier versions of this article. I am grateful for funding provided by Cambridge Australia Scholarships and the Cambridge Trust which enabled the research for this article to be completed.

References

1 See Saunders, Cheryl, ‘Judicial Engagement with Comparative Law’ in Ginsburg, Tom and Dixon, Rosalind (eds), Comparative Constitutional Law (Edward Elgar, 2012) 571, 586.Google Scholar

2 See below Section V.

3 See, eg, D’Emden v Pedder (1904) 1 CLR 91.

4 (2015) 257 CLR 178 (‘McCloy’).

5 Ibid 234–8 [140]–[152] (Gageler J), 287–8 [336]–[339] (Gordon J).

6 See, eg, Mason, Anthony, ‘The Use of Proportionality in Australian Constitutional Law’ (2016) 27 Public Law Review 109, 121–3Google Scholar; Gleeson, Justin, ‘The Increasing Internationalisation of Australian Law’ (2017) 28 Public Law Review 25, 33Google Scholar; Scott Stephenson, ‘Complications and Consequences of Constitutional Comparison’ on The University of Melbourne Law School, Opinions on High (2 November 2015) <http://blogs.unimelb.edu.au/opinionsonhigh/2015/11/02/stephenson-mccloy>; Anne Twomey, ‘McCloy and the Revised Test of Proportionality’ (Speech delivered at the ALRC Freedoms Symposium, Sydney, 8 October 2015) <https://www.alrc.gov.au/proportionality-constitution-anne-twomey>; Shipra Chordia, ‘Proportionality and McCloy v New South Wales: Close But Not Quite?’ on AUSPUBLAW (1 March 2016) <https://auspublaw.org/2016/3/proportionality-and-mccloy/>.

7 D’Arcy v Myriad Genetics Inc (2015) 258 CLR 334 (‘D’Arcy’).

8 Prince Alfred College Inc v ADC (2016) 258 CLR 134 (‘Prince Alfred College’).

9 Paciocco v Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd (2016) 258 CLR 525 (‘Paciocco’).

10 McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178.

11 Attwells v Jackson Lalic Lawyers Pty Ltd (2016) 259 CLR 1.

12 Miller v The Queen (2016) 259 CLR 380 (‘Miller’).

13 Saunders, Cheryl, ‘The Use and Misuse of Comparative Constitutional Law’ (2006) 13 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 37, 67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McCrudden, Christopher, ‘A Common Law of Human Rights? Transnational Judicial Conversations on Constitutional Rights’ (2000) 20 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 499, 507CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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15 See, eg, Atkins v Virginia, 536 US 304, (2002); Lawrence v Texas, 539 US 558, (2003); Roper v Simmons, 543 US 551, (2005); Richard Posner, ‘No Thanks, We Already Have Our Own Laws’ [2004] (July/August) Legal Affairs; Jackson, Vicki, ‘Constitutional Comparisons: Convergence, Resistance, Engagement’ (2005) 119 Harvard Law Review 109Google Scholar; Lee, Youngjae, ‘International Consensus as Persuasive Authority in the Eighth Amendment’ (2007) 163 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 63Google Scholar.

16 See, eg, in Australia, Roach v Electoral Commissioner (2007) 233 CLR 162, 178–9 [17]–[19] (Gleeson CJ), 203–4 [100]–[101] (Gummow, Kirby and Crennan JJ), 221 [165]–[166] (Hayne J), 224 [181] (Heydon J). See also Benvenisti, Eyal, ‘Reclaiming Democracy: The Strategic Uses of Foreign and International Law by National Courts’ (2008) 102 American Journal of International Law 241CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Davis, DM, ‘Constitutional Borrowing: The Influence of Legal Culture and Local History in the Reconstitution of Comparative Influence: The South African Experience’ (2003) 1 International Journal of Constitutional Law 181CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ponthoreau, Marie-Claire and Groppi, Tania (eds), The Use of Foreign Precedents by Constitutional Judges (Hart, 2013)Google Scholar; Thiruvengadam, Arun, ‘The Continuing Resistance to Foreign Law in Constitutional Adjudication in Singapore’ in Neo, Jaclyn (ed), Constitutional Interpretation in Singapore: Theory and Practice (Routledge, 2016) 138Google Scholar.

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19 Stone, above n 17, 46.

20 Commonwealth and State parliaments have passed legislation to reverse the effects of High Court decisions on a number of occasions. A well-known example is the Native Title Amendment Act 1998 (Cth) as a response to the decisions of Brandy v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (1995) 183 CLR 245 and Wik Peoples v Queensland (1996) 187 CLR 1. But the vast majority of High Court decisions (around 50 each year since at least 2000) are not reversed by legislation.

21 See below Section V(D)(1).

22 Tania Groppi and Marie-Claire Ponthoreau, ‘Introduction’ in Ponthoreau and Groppi, above n 16, 1.

23 Robert French, ‘The Globalisation of Public Law—A Quilting of Legalities’ (Speech delivered at Cambridge Public Law Conference, Cambridge, 12 September 2016) <http://www.hcourt.gov.au/assets/publications/speeches/current-justices/frenchcj/frenchcj12sep2016.pdf>.

24 Choudhry, Sujit, ‘Migration as a New Metaphor in Comparative Constitutional Law’ in Choudhry, Sujit (ed), The Migration of Constitutional Ideas (Cambridge University Press, 2006) 1Google Scholar.

25 Friedman, Barry and Saunders, Cheryl, ‘Symposium: Constitutional Borrowing—Editors’ Introduction’ (2003) 1 International Journal of Constitutional Law 177CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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27 McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178.

28 Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, 561–2 as reformulated in Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1, 50 [92]–[93], 51 [95]–[96] (McHugh J), 77–8 [196] (Gummow and Hayne JJ), 82 [211] (Kirby J).

29 Monis v The Queen (2013) 249 CLR 92; Unions NSW v New South Wales (2013) 252 CLR 530; Tajjour v New South Wales (2014) 254 CLR 508.

30 McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178, 195 [3] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ); See Barak, Aharon, Proportionality: Constitutional Rights and their Limitations (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 178–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 See, eg, Rowe (2010) 243 CLR 1, 139–42 [455]–[466] (Kiefel J); Monis (2013) 249 CLR 92, 213–14 [345]–[346] (Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ); Tajjour (2014) 254 CLR 508, 574–5 [128]–[133] (Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

32 McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178, 195–6 [4].

33 See, eg, Saunders, ‘Use and Misuse’, above n 13, 65–7.

34 McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178, 229 [120] (Gageler J). Footnote omitted.

35 Ibid 234 [140].

36 Ibid 235 [142]–[144].

37 Ibid 281 [308].

38 Ibid 288–9 [337]–[339].

39 See above n 6.

40 (2016) 90 ALJR 1027, 1038–9 [37] (French CJ and Bell J) (‘Murphy’). See also at 1062 [202] (Keane J).

41 See above n 6.

42 See McCutcheon v Federal Election Commission, 118 L Ed (2d) 468, (2014); Citizens United v Federal Election Commission, 558 US 310, (2010).

43 McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178, 206 [42] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ). See also at 248 [181] (Gageler J), 258 [219] (Nettle J), 283 [317] (Gordon J).

44 Ibid 258 [219].

45 Ibid 205 [38], 207 [45].

46 Ibid 248 [182]–[183].

47 (2016) 259 CLR 1 (‘Attwells’).

48 (2016) 259 CLR 380.

49 Arthur JS Hall v Simons [2002] 1 AC 615.

50 Lai v Chamberlain [2007] 2 NZLR 7.

51 Leslie v Ball (1863) 22 UCQB 512; Demarco v Ungaro (1979) 95 DLR (3d) 385.

52 Ferri v Ackerman, 444 US 193, (1979).

53 D’Orta-Ekenaike v Victoria Legal Aid (2005) 223 CLR 1; Giannarelli v Wraith (1988) 165 CLR 543.

54 Attwells (2016) 259 CLR 1, 21 [36] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell, Gageler and Keane JJ), Nettle and Gordon JJ agreeing at 29 [64], 45 [131].

55 Ibid 21 [36].

56 Ibid.

57 Chan Wing-Siu v The Queen [1985] AC 168; R v Hyde [1991] 1 QB 139; Hui Chi-Ming v The Queen [1992] 1 AC 34; R v Powell [1999] 1 AC 1; McAuliffe v The Queen (1995) 183 CLR 108.

58 R v Jogee [2016] UKSC 8, 26–8 [79]–[82].

59 Miller (2016) 259 CLR 380, 390 [11], 399–400 [39], 401 [41].

60 Ibid 429–30 [148].

61 Mason, Anthony, ‘Future Directions in Australian Law’ (1987) 13 Monash University Law Review 149, 154Google Scholar; Paciocco (2016) 258 CLR 525, 539 [8] (French CJ).

62 Schauer, Frederick, ‘Authority and Authorities’ (2008) 94 Virginia Law Review 1931, 1946Google Scholar.

63 Glenn, H Patrick, ‘Persuasive Authority’ (1987) 32 McGill Law Journal 261, 263Google Scholar.

64 Flanders, Chad, ‘Toward a Theory of Persuasive Authority’ (2009) 62 Oklahoma Law Review 55, 65Google Scholar.

65 Ibid 72, 74; Schauer, above n 62. See also Lee, above n 15, 71.

66 Ingman, Terence, The English Legal Process (Oxford University Press, 13th ed, 2010) 215Google Scholar; Duxbury, Neil, The Nature and Authority of Precedent (Cambridge University Press, 2008) 62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

67 Bell, ‘Relevance of Foreign Examples’, above n 18, 443.

68 Glensy, Rex, ‘Which Countries Count? Lawrence v Texas and the Selection of Foreign Persuasive Authority’ (2004) 45 Virginia Journal of International Law 357Google Scholar.

69 Ibid 436. See also Tripathi, Pradyumna, ‘Foreign Precedents and Constitutional Law’ (1957) 57 Columbia Law Review 319, 322CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70 Glensy, above n 688, 448.

71 Bell, ‘Relevance of Foreign Examples’, above n 18, 451.

72 McCrudden, above n 13, 517–23.

73 Below n 107.

74 Waldron, above n 18. Cf Lee, above n 15.

75 Bell, ‘Relevance of Foreign Examples’, above n 18, 451; Glenn, above n 63, 261, 288; McCrudden, above n 13, 518. See also Dupré, Catherine, Importing the Law in Post-Communist Transitions (Hart Publishing, 2003) 171, 184Google Scholar.

76 Ingman, above n 66, 215; Lamond, Grant, ‘Persuasive Authority in the Law’ (2010) 17 Harvard Review of Philosophy 16, 28CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

77 Mak, Elaine, ‘Why Do UK and Dutch Judges Cite Foreign Law?’ (2011) 70(2) Cambridge Law Journal 420, 423, 436, 439, 448CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 Flanagan, Brian and Ahern, Sinéad, ‘Judicial Decision-Making and Transnational Law: A Survey of Common Law Supreme Court Judges’ (2011) 60 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 1, 10, 26CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79 Bell, ‘Relevance of Foreign Examples’, above n 18, 435–6, 452–3.

80 Cross, Rupert and Harris, JW, Precedent in English Law (Oxford University Press, 4th ed, 2004) 192Google Scholar.

81 Ibid 436.

82 See, eg, Bell, ‘Relevance of Foreign Examples’, above n 18, 453–4; Markesinis, Basil, ‘Judicial Mentality: Mental Disposition or Outlook as a Factor Impeding Recourse to Foreign Law’ 80(4) Tulane Law Review 1325Google Scholar; Markesinis and Fedtke, above n 18, 200–7; Tripathi, above n 69, 322, 344–5.

83 Epstein, Lee and King, Gary, ‘The Rules of Inference’ (2002) 69 University of Chicago Law Review 1, 93CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nisbett, Richard and Wilson, Timothy Decamp, ‘Telling More Than We Can Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes’ (1977) 84(3) Psychological Review 231CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 See below Section V(A).

85 Robert French, ‘Convergence Across National Boundaries in Commercial Law’ (Speech delivered at Renmin University, Beijing, 21 September 2016) <http://www.hcourt.gov.au/assets/publications/speeches/current-justices/frenchcj/frenchcj21Sep2016.pdf>.

86 Stone, above n 17, 46. See also the articles cited at n 15, above.

87 Markesinis and Fedtke, above n 18, 137–8.

88 Bell, ‘Relevance of Foreign Examples’, above n 18, 460.

89 Ibid 443–4.

90 Ingman, above n 66, 215; Duxbury, above n 66, 63.

91 High Court of Australia, High Court Judgments Database <http://eresources.hcourt.gov.au/>.

92 Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth) s 19.

93 Section V(B).

94 The definition of ‘follows’ is in Section II above.

95 Australian Competition and Consumer Commission v Flight Centre Travel Group (2016) 91 ALJR 143 (‘Flight Centre’); Attwells (2016) 259 CLR 1; Bywater Investments Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (2016) 260 CLR 169; D’Arcy (2015) 258 CLR 334; Filippou v The Queen (2015) 256 CLR 47 (‘Filippou’); Firebird Global Master Fund II Ltd v Republic of Nauru (2015) 258 CLR 31 (‘Firebird’); Fischer v Nemeske Pty Ltd (2016) 257 CLR 615 (‘Fischer’); Macoun v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (2015) 257 CLR 519 (‘Macoun’); McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178; Miller (2016) 259 CLR 380; Murphy (2016) 90 ALJR 1027; Prince Alfred College; Paciocco (2016) 258 CLR 525; Simic v NSW Land and Housing Corporation (2016) 260 CLR 85 (‘Simic’); Tomlinson v Ramsey Food Processing Pty Ltd (2015) 256 CLR 507 (‘Tomlinson’); NH v DPP (2016) 90 ALJR 978 (‘NH’).

96 Cartwright, Bliss et al, ‘State Supreme Courts: A Century of Style and Citation’ (1981) 33(5) Stanford Law Review 773, 794Google Scholar.

97 Mak, Elaine, Judicial Decision-Making in a Globalised World: A Comparative Analysis of the Changing Practices of Western Highest Courts (Hart Publishing, 2013)Google Scholar; Flanagan and Ahern, above n 78.

98 Flanagan and Ahern, above n 78, 7–9.

99 Cartwright et al, above n 97.

100 See, eg, Lynch, Andrew and Williams, George, ‘The High Court on Constitutional Law: The 2016 and French Court Statistics’ (2017) 40 University of New South Wales Law Journal 1468CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

101 Foreign cases were not cited in: Allen v Chadwick (2015) 256 CLR 148; AstraZeneca AB v Apotex Pty Ltd (2015) 257 CLR 356; Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Australian Building Systems Pty Ltd (2015) 257 CLR 544; Commissioner of the Australian Federal Police v Zhao (2015) 255 CLR 46; CMB v Attorney General (NSW) (2015) 256 CLR 346; Duncan v Independent Commission Against Corruption (2015) 256 CLR 83 (‘Duncan’); Fair Work Ombudsman v Quest South Perth Holdings Pty Ltd (2015) 256 CLR 137; Fortress Credit Corporation (Australia) II Pty Ltd v Fletcher (2015) 254 CLR 489; Fuller-Lyons v New South Wales (2015) 89 ALJR 824; Grant Samuel Corporate Finance Pty Ltd v Fletcher (2015) 254 CLR 477; Independent Commission Against Corruption v Cunneen (2015) 256 CLR 1; Isbester v Knox City Council (2015) 255 CLR 135; JP Morgan Chase Bank, National Association v Fletcher (2015) 254 CLR 477; Lavin v Toppi (2015) 254 CLR 459; Plaintiff S297/2013 v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (2015) 255 CLR 231; Queensland Nickel Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (2015) 255 CLR 252 (‘Queensland Nickel’); R v Beckett (2015) 256 CLR 305; R v Pham (2015) 256 CLR 550; Uelese v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (2015) 256 CLR 203; Wei v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (2015) 257 CLR 22.

102 Foreign decisions were not cited in: Ainsworth v Albrecht (2016) 90 ALJR 1118; Bell Group NV (in liq) v Western Australia (2016) 90 ALJR 655 (‘Bell Group’); Blank v Commissioner of Taxation (2016) 258 CLR 439; Castle v The Queen (2016) 259 CLR 449; Coverdale v West Coast Council (2016) 259 CLR 164; Day v Australian Electoral Officer (SA) (2016) 90 ALJR 639 (‘Day’); Deal v Father Pius Kodakkathanath (2016) 258 CLR 281; Comcare v Martin (2016) 258 CLR 467; ElecNet (Aust) v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (2016) 259 CLR 73; Graham v The Queen (2016) 90 ALJR 820; Hall v Hall (2016) 257 CLR 490; Military Rehabilitation and Compensation Commission v May (2016) 257 CLR 468; Minister for Immigration and Border Protection v SZSSJ (2016) 259 CLR 180; Mok v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) (2016) 257 CLR 402; Moreton Bay Regional Council v Mekpine Pty Ltd (2016) 256 CLR 437; Nguyen v The Queen (2016) 256 CLR 656; Sio v The Queen (2016) 259 CLR 47; Southern Han Breakfast Point Pty Ltd (in liq) v Lewence Construction Pty Ltd (2016) 91 ALJR 233; R v GW (2016) 258 CLR 108; R v Kilic (2016) 259 CLR 256; Timbercorp Finance Pty Ltd (in liq) v Collins (2016) 259 CLR 212; Victoria v Tatts Group Ltd (2016) 90 ALJR 392.

103 I use the definition of ‘constitutional cases’ used by Lynch and Williams in their well-known yearly study of High Court cases: ‘cases … in the application of legal principle identified by the Court as being derived from the Australian Constitution’, above n 96, Appendix E.

104 CPCF v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (2015) 255 CLR 514; Australian Communications and Media Authority v Today FM (Sydney) Pty Ltd (2015) 255 CLR 352; Communications, Electrical, Electronic, Energy, Information, Postal, Plumbing and Allied Services Union of Australia v Queensland Rail (2015) 256 CLR 171; Queensland Nickel (2015) 255 CLR 252; Duncan (2015) 255 CLR 388; McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178; North Australian Aboriginal Justice Agency Ltd v Northern Territory (2015) 256 CLR 569.

105 Plaintiff M68/2015 v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (2016) 257 CLR 42; CGU Insurance Ltd v Blakeley (2016) 259 CLR 339; Day (2016) 90 ALJR 639; Bell Group (2016) 90 ALJR 655; Alqudsi v The Queen (2016) 258 CLR 203; Murphy (2016) 90 ALJR 1027; Cunningham v Commonwealth (2016) 259 CLR 536.

106 Foreign decisions were not cited in: Bell Group (2016) 90 ALJR 655; Day (2016) 90 ALJR 639; Duncan (2015) 255 CLR 388; Queensland Nickel (2015) 255 CLR 252.

107 Flight Centre (2016) 91 ALJR 143, 157–8 [78], 158 [85], 167 [132], 168–9 [137], 170 [143]; Attwells (2016) 259 CLR 1, 36 [99]; Bywater Investments Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (2016) 260 CLR 169, 191 [40], 205–7 [71]–[74], 211 [84], 228 [167] (‘Bywater’); D’Arcy (2015) 258 CLR 334, 343–4 [14], 348–9 [24]–[25], 355 [35], 371–2 [90], 385 [137], 389 [147], 391 [153], 396 [169], 413 [225]; Firebird (2015) 258 CLR 31, 63 [98], 70–1 [133]–[134], 97–8 [223]–[224], 99–100 [228], 104 [244]; Fischer (2016) 257 CLR 615, 630–1 [24], 643 [67], 650 [96], 674 [195]; Macoun (2015) 257 CLR 519, 542–3 [81]; McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178 204–5 [36]–[39], 207 [44], 212 [65], 212–13 [67], 216–17 [77]–[78], 217 [79], 248 [181]–[182], 263 [239]; Miller (2016) 259 CLR 380, 390 [10], 398–9 [36], 418 [107], 429 [146]; Murphy (2016) 90 ALJR 1027, 1060 [188]; Prince Alfred College (2016) 258 CLR 134, 148 [40], 149 [44], 151–2 [51]–[52], 154 [61]–[62], 156–7 [69]–[70], 160 [82], 171 [128]; Paciocco (2016) 258 CLR 525, 540–1 [10], 545 [22], 572 [138], 578 [156], 581 [166], 602 [242], 606 [254], 609–10 [263]–[264], 614 [275]–[276], 627 [319], 628 [321], 635–6 [346]; Simic (2016) 260 CLR 85, 103–4 [46], 116 [99], 119 [110]; Tomlinson (2015) 256 CLR 507, 519 [26], 542 [108]; NH (2016) 90 ALJR 978, 981 [4], 984 [20], 985–6 [23]–[25], 999 [95]–[96]. No foreign decisions were followed in Filippou (2015) 256 CLR 47.

108 See above Section II.

109 (2016) 260 CLR 85.

110 Cross and Harris, above n 80, 192.

111 (2016) 260 CLR 169.

112 (2016) 257 CLR 615.

113 Bywater (2016) 260 CLR 169, 211 [84] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Nettle JJ).

114 Fischer (2016) 257 CLR 615, 630 [24].

115 Ibid 650 [96]–[97].

116 (2015) 258 CLR 31.

117 Ibid 96 [221].

118 Above n 107.

119 Ibid.

120 Paciocco (2016) 258 CLR 525, 539 [7].

121 See, eg, Finn, Paul, ‘Common Law Divergences’ (2013) 37 Melbourne University Law Review 509Google Scholar.

122 Saunders and Stone, above n 17, 18.

123 Saunders, ‘Judicial Engagement’, above n 1, 575–6.

124 Mak, above n 98, 206.

125 Ibid.

126 Transcript of Proceedings, McCloy [2015] HCATrans 142 (11 June 2015) 105 (Attorney General for Victoria, intervening).

127 (2016) 260 CLR 85.

128 Simic et al, ‘Appellants’ Submissions’, Submission in Simic, S16/2016, 9 June 2015, [43]; Transcript of Proceedings, Simic [2016] HCATrans 160 (20 July 2016) 58, 65 (NSW Land and Housing Corporation).

129 Glensy, above n 68.

130 See Sections IV(D) and V(A).

131 See above n 5–6.

132 McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178 216–17 [77]–[78] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ).

133 Ibid 216 [77]. Footnote omitted.

134 Ibid 217 [78].

135 (2016) 258 CLR 525.

136 Ibid 540 [10] (French CJ), 545 [22] (Kiefel J), 572 [138], 578 [156], 581 [166], 602 [242], 606 [254], 609–10 [263], 610 [264], 614 [275]–[276] (Keane J), 627 [319], 628 [321], 635–6 [346] (Nettle J).

137 Flight Centre (2016) 91 ALJR 143, 158 [85].

138 See above Section IV(B).

139 Soulemezis v Dudley (Holdings) Pty Ltd (1987) 10 NSWLR 247, 257–8 (Kirby P), 268–73 (Mahoney JA), 277–81 (McHugh JA).

140 See, eg, Prince Alfred College v ADC (2016) 258 CLR 134, 148–61 [38]–[84] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell, Keane and Nettle JJ) where the majority relied on foreign decisions that were detailed in the respondent's submissions.

141 (2015) 256 CLR 507.

142 Ibid 515 [17].

143 (2016) 260 CLR 85.

144 Ibid 95–6 [19]–[20], 103–4 [46]–[49].

145 Transcript of Proceedings, McCloy [2015] HCATrans 141 (10 June 2016) 79; Transcript of Proceedings, McCloy [2015] HCATrans 142 (11 June 2016) 91–2, 103–10, 115–17.

146 McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178, 235 [141], 281 [308].

147 Davis, Dennis, Richter, Alan and Saunders, Cheryl, ‘Introduction’ in Davis, Dennis, Richter, Alan and Saunders, Cheryl (eds), An Inquiry into the Existence of Global Values: Through the Lens of Comparative Constitutional Law (Hart, 2015) 1, 11Google Scholar.

148 Bell, ‘Relevance of Foreign Examples’, above n 18, 435–6, 452–3.

149 (2015) 257 CLR 178.

150 (2016) 259 CLR 1.

151 (2016) 259 CLR 380.

152 (2015) 256 CLR 47.

153 McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178, 215 [74] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ).

154 Ibid 238 [151] (Gageler J).

155 Ibid 207 [44]–[45] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ). See also 248 [181]–[183] (Gageler J), 258 [219] (Nettle J), 283–4 [318] (Gordon J).

156 Attwells (2016) 259 CLR 1, 21 [36] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell, Gageler and Keane JJ).

157 Filippou (2015) 256 CLR 47, 73 [72] (French CJ, Bell, Keane and Nettle JJ).

158 Miller (2016) 259 CLR 380, 399–400 [39] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell, Nettle and Gordon JJ).

159 Ibid 429 [148] (Keane J) quoting R v Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration; Ex parte Brisbane Tramways Co Ltd (Tramways Case (No 1)) (1914) 18 CLR 54, 58; Attwells (2016) 259 CLR 1, 19 [28].

160 Ibid 424 [128].

161 See above Section IV(E).

162 See above n 101–2.

163 See above n 103 for the definition of ‘constitutional cases’.

164 See above n 104–5.

165 Murphy (2016) 90 ALJR 1027, 1060 [188] (Keane J); McCloy (2015) 257 CLR 178 204–5 [36]–[39], 207 [44], 212 [65], 212–13 [67], 216–17 [77]–[78], 217 [79] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ), 248 [181]–[182] (Gageler J), 263 [239] (Nettle J).

166 (2015) 256 CLR 47.

167 (2016) 259 CLR 380, 390 [10], 398–9 [36] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell, Nettle and Gordon JJ), 418 [107] (Gageler J), 429 [146] (Keane J).

168 (2016) 90 ALJR 978, 981 [4], 984 [20], 985–6 [23]–[25] (French CJ, Kiefel and Bell JJ), 999 [95]–[96] (Nettle and Gordon JJ).

169 Paciocco (2016) 258 CLR 525, 540 [10] (French CJ), 545 [22] (Kiefel J), 572 [138], 578 [156], 581 [166] (Gageler J), [242], 602 [252], 606 [254], 609–10 [263]–[264], 614 [275]–[276] (Keane J) 627 [319], 628 [321], 635–6 [346] (Nettle J).

170 D’Arcy (2015) 258 CLR 334, 343–4 [14], 348–9 [24]–[25], 355 [35], 371–2 [90] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ) 385 [137], 389 [147], 391 [153], 396 [169] (Gageler and Nettle JJ), 411 [225] (Gordon J).

171 Bywater (2016) 260 CLR 169, 191 [40], 205–7 [71]–[74], 211 [84] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Nettle JJ), 228 [167] (Gordon J); Macoun (2015) 257 CLR 519, 542–3 [81].

172 Firebird (2015) 258 CLR 31, 63 [98] (French CJ and Kiefel J) 71–2 [133]–[134] (Gageler J) 97–8 [223]–[224], 99–100 [228], 104 [244] (Nettle and Gordon JJ).

173 Bell, ‘Relevance of Foreign Examples’, above n 18, 460.

174 (2016) 258 CLR 134, 148 [38].

175 See above Section III(C).

176 (2016) 90 ALJR 978.

177 (2015) 258 CLR 31.

178 Waldron, above n 18; Flanders, above n 64, 77, 82, 84; Lamond, above n 76, 29.

179 Bywater (2016) 260 CLR 169.

180 Macoun (2015) 257 CLR 519, 543 [82].

181 (2016) 259 CLR 1.

182 D’Arcy (2015) 258 CLR 334, 351–2 [28] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ).

183 Ibid 353–5 [34]–[35].

184 See above n 6.

185 Attwells (2016) 259 CLR 1, 21 [36].

186 Stone, above n 17, 46; Markesinis and Fedtke, above n 18, 167–72.

187 See, eg, Arcioni, Elisa and Stone, Adrienne, ‘The Small Brown Bird: Values and Aspirations in the Australian Constitution’ (2016) 14 International Journal of Constitutional Law 60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Davis, Richter and Saunders, above n 147.

188 For a recent comparative study of national differences in approaches to international law see Roberts, Anthea, Is International Law International? (Oxford University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

189 Bianchi, Cf Andrea, ‘International Law and US Courts: The Myth of Lohengrin Revisited’ (2004) 15 European Journal of International Law 751CrossRefGoogle Scholar.