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State Duties to Protect

A Swiss Constitutional Law Perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Rainer J. Schweizer
Rainer J. Schweizer*
Affiliation:
University of St. Gallen
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Extract

Most European countries’ constitutional obligations guarantee and protect public security and fundamental rights. One aspect and often a prerequisite for the protection of public security and individual rights is the protection of critical infrastructure (CIP). CIP is of great importance in Switzerland, which is inevitable in an economically and technologically sophisticated and densely populated country.

Type
Symposium on Critical Infrastructures: Risk, Responsibility and Liability
Information
European Journal of Risk Regulation , Volume 6 , Issue 2 , June 2015 , pp. 219 - 228
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015

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References

1 Swiss Federal Constitution of 29 Mai 1874 (AS 1 38).

2 Art. 24 [Rivers and Forests]: The Confederation has the right to high supervision over the control of river embankments and forests. It shall lend its support to works for the control and the embanking of mountain streams as well as the reforestation of their source areas. It shall lay down the regulations required to maintain such works and to preserve existing forests. Art. 24 para. 1 was revised on 11 July 1897. This provision has been incorporated in Art. 76 and 77 of the applicable Swiss Federal Constitution of 18 April 1999 (SR 102).

3 Michael, Lothar/Molok, Martin, Grundrechte, third ed. (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 2012), at N. 511.Google Scholar

4 For details on state liability, see Anne van Aaken and Isabelle Wildhaber, in this issue.

5 Burckhardt, Walther in: Kommentar zur Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 29. Mai 1874, third ed. (Bern: Verlag Stämpfli & Cie AG, 1931), Art. 24, at N. 1 et sqq.Google Scholar

6 Jagmetti, Riccardo in: Kommentar zur Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 29. Mai 1874, third ed. (Basel/ Zurich/ Bern: Helbing & Lichtenhahn Verlag, Schulthess Polygraphischer Verlag and Verlag Stämpfli & Cie, 1996), Art. 24, at N. 1 et sqq.Google Scholar

7 Jagmetti in: Kommentar zur Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 29. Mai 1874, supra note 6, Art. 24, at N. 3 et sqq.

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9 Macheret, Augustin in: Kommentar zur Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 29. Mai 1874, third ed. (Basel/Zurich/Bern: Helbing & Lichtenhahn Verlag, Schulthess Polygraphischer Verlag and Verlag Stämpfli & Cie,1988), at Art. 13 – 22Google Scholar; Meyer, Hansjörg/Müller, Reto P. in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed., (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Art. 58, at N. 1 et sqq.Google Scholar

10 Art. 58 para. 2 FC Armed forces: The armed forces serve to prevent war and to maintain peace; they defend the country and its population. They shall support the civilian authorities in safeguarding the country against serious threats to internal security and in dealing with exceptional situations. Further duties may be provided for by law; Meyer, Hansjörg/Müller, Reto Patrick in: Kommentar zur Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 29. Mai 1874, third ed., (Basel/Zurich/Bern: Helbing & Lichtenhahn Verlag, Schulthess Polygraphischer Verlag and Verlag Stämpfli & Cie,1996), Art. 58, at N. 21 et sqq.Google Scholar

11 UN-Charter of 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI. Art. 51: Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security. See: Schweizer, Rainer J./Scheffler, Jan, Verfassungs- und völkerrechtliche Anforderungen an die Verteidigungskompetenz der schweizerischen Armee und an ihr zukünftiges Leistungsprofil, in: ZÖR (2011) 66: 299– 365, at p. 323 et sqq.Google Scholar

12 Art. 9a para. 1 and 2 of the Federal Constitution Law of Austria (BVG), BGBl. Nr. 1/1930.

13 Art. 10 para. 15 B-VG, supra note 12.

14 Schweizer/Scheffler, Verteidigungskompetenz der schweizerischen Armee, supra note 11, at p. 323 et sqq.

15 Schweizer, Rainer J./Mohler, Markus H. F. in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed., (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Vorbemerkungen zur Sicherheitsverfassung, at N. 13 et sqq.Google Scholar

16 Schweizer/Scheffler, Verteidigungskompetenz der schweizerischen Armee, supra note 11, at p. 310 et sq., 317 et sqq.

17 Swiss Federal Constitution (FC) of 18 April 1999 (SR 101); Article 61 FC Civil defence: The legislation on the civil defence of persons and property against the effects of armed conflicts is the responsibility of the Confederation. The Confederation shall legislate on the deployment of civil defence units in the event of disasters and emergencies. (…) The Confederation shall legislate on fair compensation for loss of income. (…)

18 Schmocker, Valérie Anne, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed., (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Art. 61, at N. 6 et sqq.Google Scholar

19 Morel, Reto/Vallender, Klaus. A. in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed., (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Art. 74 at N.20 et sqq.Google Scholar; Marti, Ursula, Das Vorsorgeprinzip im Umweltrecht. Am Beispiel der internationalen, europäischen und schweizerischen Rechtsordnung, (Zurich: Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2011), at p. 147 et sqq.Google Scholar

20 Marti, Das Vorsorgeprinzip im Umweltrecht, supra note 19, at p. 47 et sqq.

21 Petitpierre, Environmental Law in Switzerland, supra note 8, at N. 55.

22 Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/6/Rev.1 (1992), 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992).

23 International Law Association (ILA) Resolution 3/2002: “New Delhi Declaration of Principles of International Law Relating to Sustainable Development” in ILA, Report of the Seventieth Conference, New Delhi (London: ILA, 2002), available online: http://www.ila-hq.org.

24 Marti, Das Vorsorgeprinzip im Umweltrecht, supra note 19, at p. 227 et sqq.

25 Art. 58 para. 2 FC; Meyer/Müller in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 10, Art. 58, at N. 1 et sqq.

26 Petitpierre, Environmental Law in Switzerland, supra note 8, at N. 55. 222

27 For Germany: Erhard Denninger, Polizeiaufgaben, in: idem et al. (eds.), Handbuch des Polizeirechts, Gefahrenabwehr, Strafverfolgung, Rechtsschutz, fifth edition, (München: C. H. Beck, 2012), at N. 16 et sqq.Google Scholar; Schweizer/Mohler, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 15, Art. 57 at N. 8.

28 Schweizer, Rainer J./Müller, Reto Patrick in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed., (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Art. 52 para 2, at N. 28 sqq.Google Scholar

29 Schweizer/Mohler, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 15, Vorbemerkungen zur Sicherheitsverfassung at N. 9.

30 Art. 36 para. 1 phrase 3 FC; Mohler, Markus H.F., Grundzüge des Polizeirechtes der Schweiz (Basel: Helbing Lichtenhahn Verlag: 2012), at N. 313 et sqq.Google Scholar; ECtHR Decision Gsell vs. Switzerland, request 12675/05 [2009], para. 55 et sqq.

31 Art. 2 para. 1 FC; Art. 41 para. 1 subpara. a FC; Art. 57 FC sq .; Art. 76 para. 3 FC; Art. 94 para. 1 FC; Art. 120 para. 2 FC; Art. 173 para. 1 subpara. a and b FC; Art. 185 FC.

32 Mohler, Markus H.F., Vernetzung von Sicherheit, in: Schweizer, Rainer J. (ed.), Sicherheits- und Ordnungsrecht, Schweizerisches Bundesverwaltungsrecht vol. III–1, (Basel: Helbing & Lichtenhahn Verlag, 2008) at p. 521–624, para. 1.Google Scholar

33 Ruch, Alexander, Äussere und innere Sicherheit, in: Thürer, Daniel/Aubert, Jean-François/Müller, Jörg Paul, der Schweiz, Verfassungsrecht, (Zurich: Schulthess Juristische Medien AG, 2001), at p. 892.Google Scholar

34 Kofi Annan, In Larger Freedom. Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for all, Summary, in: Report of the Secretary General of the United Nations for Decision by Head of State and Government in September 2005, New York, 21 March 2005, A/59/2005.

35 Markus H.F. Mohler, Vernetzung von Sicherheit, supra note 32, at N. 69; Schweizer/Mohler, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 15, Vorbemerkungen zur Sicherheitsverfassung, at N.8.

36 European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 213 UNTS 222, entered into force September 3, 1953 [hereinafter ECHR].

37 See for legislation of the ECHR: Grabenwarter, Christoph/Pabel, Katharina, Europäische Menschenrechtskonvention, fifth edition, (München/Wien: C.H. Beck und Manz Verlag, 2012), at para 19 N. 1117 et sqq,, 130 et sqq.Google Scholar; for Germany: Hufen, Friedhelm, Staatsrecht II: Grundrechte, third edition, (München: C.H.Beck, 2011), para 5 at N. 5 et sqq.Google Scholar; Samanta Besson, Les obligations positives de protectiom des droits fondamentaux, in ZSR (2003) Vol. I, 49 et sqq. 70 et sqq.; Schweizer, Rainer J., in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed., (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Art. 35 at N. 13 et sqq., and Art. 10 N. 51 et sqq.Google Scholar

38 Decisions of the ECHR: Lopez Ostra vs. Spain, request 16798/90 [1994], para 51; Guerra vs. Italy, request 14967/89 [1998], para 58; Osman vs. United Kingdom, request 87/1997/871/1083 [1998], para 115 – 122; Hatton vs.United Kingdom, request 36022/97 [2003], para 116 et sqq.; Di Sarno and others vs. Italy, request 30765/08 [2012], para 108. Decision of the Swiss Federal Court (SFC): BGE 138 I 205, cons. 4 and 5, 210 et sqq.; 140 I 77, cons. 10, 89 et sq.

39 See Decision of the German Constitutional Court: BVerfGE 79, 174 [30-11-1988], 89.

40 See ECHR Decision Paul and Audrey Edwards vs. United Kingdom, request 46477/99 [2009]. para 54 – 64; Ilbeyi Kemaloglu and Meryie Kemaloglu vs. Turkey, request 19986/06 [2012]. para 32 et sqq.; Decision of the SFC: BGE 126 I 112, cons. 4c, 119, and cons. 5c, 120 et sq; 133 I 110, cons. 7.1.1, 123 et sq.; 135 I 113 cons. 2.1, 117..

41 Art. 10 para. 2 FC: Every person has the right to personal liberty and in particular to physical and mental integrity and to freedom of movement.

42 ECHR Reynolds vs. United Kingdom, request 2694/08 [2012], para 60 et sqq.; Bajic vs. Croatia, request 41108/10 [2012], para 87 et sqq.; BGE 130 I 16, cons. 5.2, 20.

43 See SFC BGE 133 I 110, cons. 5.2.3, 120 et sq.; 118 Ia 427, Cons. 4b, 434; 104 Ia 480, cons. 4a, 485. ; 99 I ia 747, cons. 2, 749. Decisions of the ECHR: Banel vs. Lithuania, request 14326/11 [2013], para 62 et sqq.; Pereira Henriques vs. Luxembourg; request 60255/00 [2006], para 54 et sqq.; Vilnes and others vs. Norway, requests 52806/09 and 22703/10 [2013], 233 et sqq. See more: Schweizer in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 41, Art. 10, at N.23 and 51 et sqq.

44 BGE 97 I 221 cons. 4d, 230.

45 BGE 132 I 256 E. 4.3, 263; 124 I 267, cons. 3, 269.

46 BGE131 I 333, cons. 3 and 4, 337 et sqq.; SFC Decision in: ZBl 1987, 545 Cons. 2, 546.

47 Art. 12 FC: Persons in need and unable to provide for themselves have the right to assistance and care, and to the financial means required for a decent standard of living. See Müller, Lucien, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed., (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Art. 12 at N. 13 et sqq.Google Scholar

48 For example against impairments of health resulting from exhaust fumes or excessive aircraft noise or against negligent homicide by public agencies. Grabenwarter/Pabel, Europäische Menschenrechtskonvention, supra note 41, § 19 at N. 3 et sqq., § 29 at N. 16 et sqq., § 22 N. 51 et sqq.

49 BGE 135 I 113 cons. 2.1, at p. 117; 133 I 110 cons. 7.1.1., at p. 123 et sq.; 130 I 16, cons. 5.2, at p. 20; cf. Schweizer, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 41, Art. 35 at N. 13 et sqq.

50 See BGE 137 III 16 cons. 2.4.

51 Mohler, Grundzüge des Polizeirechtes der Schweiz, supra note 30, at N. 313 et sqq.

52 Schweizer/Mohler, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 15, Art. 57 at N. 15/6; Mohler, Grundzüge des Polizeirechtes der Schweiz, supra note 30, at N. 235 et sqq.

53 See Schweizer/Mohler, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 15, Art. 57, N. 17 et sqq.

54 Schmocker, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 18, Art. 61, at N. 34 et sqq.

55 Schmocker, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 18, Art. 61, at N. 12 and 41 et sqq.

56 Schmocker, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 18, Art. 61, at N. 14/5 and N. 23; Odendahl, Kerstin, Kulturgüterschutz, Entwicklung, Struktur und Dogmatik eines übergreifenden Normensystems. Habil. (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck Verlag 2004), at p. 375 et sqq., at p. 436 et sqq.Google Scholar

57 Generally the Canton where the people in need live, is responsible (cf. Art. 115 CF); but in case of catastrophes and emergencies the Canton of the place of happening is responsible for the first assistance.

58 Art. 10 of the Constitution of Austria, see supra 12.

59 Schmocker, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 18, Art. 61, at N. 16 – 21.

60 Federal Law on population and civil defence of 04 October 2002 (SR 520.1).

61 See supra note 10.

62 Art. 67 para 1 lit. e and f Armed Forces Act of 3 February 1995 (SR 510.10). Meyer/Müller, Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 10, Art. 58, at N. 28 et sqq.

63 Federal Decree on Abroad Disaster Assistance (SR 974.03).

64 Art 69 para 3 Armed Forces Act of 3 February 1995, available on the internet at: http://www.admin.ch/opc/en/classified-compilation/20070574/index.html-fn2#fn2

65 See Art. 81 Public construction works, Art. 82 Road transport, Art. 83 National roads, Art. 87 Railways and other modes of transport, Art. 90 Nuclear energy, Art. 91 Transport of energy, Art. 92 Postal and telecommunication services.

66 Art. 102 FC National economic supply: The Confederation shall ensure that the country is supplied with essential goods and services in the event of the threat of politico-military strife or war, or of severe shortages that the economy cannot by itself counteract. It shall take precautionary measures to address these matters. In exercising its powers under this Article, it may if necessary depart from the principle of economic freedom.

67 Hettich, Peter, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed., (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Art. 102, passim.Google Scholar

68 Federal Act on the National Economic Supply of 8 October 1982 (SR 531) underlies now a total revision; see the explanatory statement of the Federal Council concerning the total revision of the Federal Act on the National Economic Supply of 3 September 2014, (BBl 2014 7119) and the draft Act (BBl 2014 7185).

69 Art. 26 para. 1 NESA.

70 Draft Act of the Explanatory statement of the Federal Council concerning the total revision of the Federal Act on the National Economic Supply, supra note 72, at p. 15.

71 Müller, in: Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 51, Art. 12 at N. 1 et sqq; Bigler-Eggenberger, Margrith/Schweizer, Rainer J., in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed. (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Art. 41 at N. 1 et sqq.Google Scholar

72 Art. 43a para. 4 FC: Universally provided services must be made available to every person in a comparable manner.

73 Schweizer/Müller, supra note 28, Art. 43a at N. 16 et sqq.

74 For example the principle of equality before the law is stated in Art. 3 of the German Constitution; Hufen, Staatsrecht II, supra note 41, at p. 693 sqq.

75 Art. 185 para. 3 FC: (…) It may in direct application of this Article issue ordinances and rulings in order to counter existing or imminent threats of serious disruption to public order or internal or external security. Such ordinances must be limited in duration.

76 Saxer, Urs, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, third ed. (Zurich/St. Gallen: Dike Verlag and Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2014), Art. 185 at N. 58 et sqq.Google Scholar

77 See: Article 15 ECHR Derogation in time of emergency: In time of war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation any High Contracting Party may take measures derogating from its obligations under this Convention to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with its other obligations under international law; Grabenwarter/Pabel, Europäische Menschenrechtskonvention, supra note 41, § 2 at N. 8 et sqq.

78 See Art. 4 ICCPR 1. In time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation and the existence of which is officially proclaimed, the States Parties to the present Covenant may take measures derogating from their obligations under the present Covenant to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with their other obligations under international law and do not involve discrimination solely on the ground of race, colour, sex, language, religion or social origin.

2. No derogation from articles 6, 7, 8 (paragraphs I and 2), 11, 15, 16 and 18 may be made under this provision. 3. Any State Party to the present Covenant availing itself of the right of derogation shall immediately inform the other States Parties to the present Covenant, through the intermediary of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, of the provisions from which it has derogated and of the reasons by which it was actuated. A further communication shall be made, through the same intermediary, on the date on which it terminates such derogation.

79 Swiss Criminal Code of 21 December 1937 (SR 311.0).

80 Egli, Patricia, Drittwirkung von Grundrechten. (Zurich: Schulthess Juristische Medien, 2002) passimGoogle Scholar; Schweizer, in: Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung St. Galler Kommentar, supra note 41, Art. 35 at N. 48 et sqq., especially in international law: ibidem: Art. 35 at N. 62.

81 (…) 3. For the purpose of this Article the term “forced or compulsory labour” shall not include: (…)

(c) any service exacted in case of an emergency or calamity threatening the life or wellbeing of the community;

(d) any work or service which forms part of normal civic obligations. European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 4 November 1950 (CETS Nr. 005). Grabenwarter/Pabel, Europäische Menschenrechtskonvention, supra note 41, § 20 at N. 1 et sqq;

82 E.g. Canton Zug or Basel-Land.