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Is World Citizenship a Legal Practicality?*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2016

L. C. Green
L. C. Green*
Affiliation:
Honorary Professor of Law, University of Alberta
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Canadian Yearbook of International Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international , Volume 25 , 1988 , pp. 151 - 185
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Copyright © The Canadian Council on International Law / Conseil Canadien de Droit International, representing the Board of Editors, Canadian Yearbook of International Law / Comité de Rédaction, Annuaire Canadien de Droit International 1988

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Footnotes

*

Based on a lecture delivered in the University of Alberta University Professor lecture series at the Law Centre, Feb. 11, 1987.

References

1 The Times (London), Jan. 2, 1986.

2 1968–70, nos. 3331–23, 3344/67 and 4448/70, summarized in Sohn and Buergenthal, International Protection of Human Rights 1059–90 (1973).

3 U.S. Dept. of Commerce Statement on Foreign Policy Export Controls, (1982) 21 Int’l Leg. Mat. 853.

4 See, e.g., Presidential Message to Congress on Trade with Hungary, the People’s Republic of China and Romania, June 3, 1983, 22 ibid., 685

5 [1955] I-CJ.4.

6 U.N. Gen. Ass. Res. 217 (III) A, 1948, Arts. 3, 14.

7 See, e.g., Convention on Reduction of Statelessness, 1961, 989 UNTS 175.

8 Convention re Status of Refugees, 1951, 189 UNTS 137.

9 See, e.g., U.N. Charter, Art. 2 (7).

10 See 1947 peace treaties with Bulgaria (41 UNTS 21), Art. 2; Finland (48 ibid., 203) Art. 6; Hungary (41 ibid., 135), Art. 2; Roumania (42 ibid., 3), Art. 3. See also, Interpretation of Peace Treaties, [1950] I.C.J. Rep. 65; Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 (999 UNTS 971), Art. 27.

11 See, however, Nationality Decrees in Tunis and Morocco (1923) P.C.I.J., Ser. B/4 (1 Hudson, , World Court Reports 145)Google Scholar; Nottebohm, loc. cit. supra note 5.

12 See, e.g., European Convention on Human Rights, 1950, 213 UNTS 222.

13 Genesis 9:6.

14 Cohn, , Human Rights in Jewish Law, Ch. 18 (1984)Google Scholar; see also, Rackman, , “Judaism and Equality,” in Konvitz, , Judaism and Human Rights 33, 52–54 (1972).Google Scholar

15 Numbers 15:14–16; Leviticus 19:34.

16 Mishnah, tr. Nezikim, Baba Bathra, 1, 6 (Danby ed., 1933, at 366). The Mishnah is a legal codification of basic Jewish law redacted by Rabbi Juda ha-Nasi, c.200 A.D.

17 Phillipson, , The International Law and Custom of Ancient Greece and Rome 192, 249 (1911).Google Scholar

18 See, e.g., Schwarzenberger, , “The Most-Favoured-Nation Standard in British State Practice,” in International Law and Order, Ch. 8 (1971), or 22 Brit. Y.B. Int’l Law 96 (1945).Google Scholar

19 See, e.g., Calvin’s case (1608) 2 St. Tr. 559 (4 British International Law Cases, 133); Joyce v. Director of Public Prosecutions, [1946] A.C. 347 (3 B.I.L.C. 51).

20 In re Hoffman 13 F. Supp. 907 (8 Ann. Dig. 281 ).

21 Phillipson, op. cit. supra note 17, at 250–53.

22 Ibid., 254–55.

23 Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1972, C. 21 ; 1968, C. 56; British Nationality Act 1981,0. 61.

24 British Nationality Act, 1948, 11 & 12 Geo. 6, C. 56.

25 R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Dept., Ex p. Thakrar, [1974] 2 W.L.R. 593.

26 Phillipson, op. cit. supra note 17.

27 Ibid., 256–57.

28 International Law, Vol. 1,646 (1955).

29 Supra note 85, at 598.

30 Weis, Nationality and Statelessness in International Law 45–46 (1979) (italics added) ; see also. Panhuys, Van, The Role of Nationality in International Law 55–56 (1959).Google Scholar

31 Belli, , De re Militari et Bello, 1563,Google Scholar Part II, Ch. I, s. 6 (Carnegie tr., 60 (1936)).

32 Ibid., Part I, Ch. I, s. 1(3).

33 Ibid., Part II, Ch. I, s. 9(61 ).

34 Quaestionum Juris Publici, 1737, Bk. I, Ch. III (Carnegie tr., a6 (1930) ).

35 Ibid., Bk. II, Ch. XI (196).

36 Grotius, , De Jure Belli ac Pacts, 1625,Google Scholar Bk. II, Ch. IX, s. vi (Carnegie tr., 313 (1925)).

37 Ibid., ss. ix, x (315–16) ; see esp., Bk. III, Ch. VIII (608, 697).

38 Ibid., Bk. II, Ch. XX, s. xl (504–5), Ch. XXV, s. vi (582) (italics added) ; see also, s. viii (583–84).

39 Charter of the International Military Tribunal, 1945 ( Schindler, and Toman, , The Laws of Armed Conflicts 825 (1981) ), Art. 6(c).Google Scholar

40 H.M.S.O. Cmd. 6964 (1946), 65; (1947) 41 Am. J. Int’l L. 172, 249; see also Schwelb, , “Crimes against Humanity,” (1946) 23 Brit. Y.B. Int’l Law 178, 205.Google Scholar

41 Loc. cit. supra note 12.

42 See, e.g., Green, , “Human Rights in Public International Law,” in Singhvi, , Horizons of Freedom 59, 74–86 (1969).Google Scholar

43 See, e.g., French occupation of Syrian coast to prevent massacre of Maronite Christians, Stowell, , Intervention in International Law, 461 (1929)Google Scholar; Green, , “Protection of Minorities in the League of Nations and the United Nations,” in Gotlieb, , Human Rights, Federalism and Minorities 179, 180–85 (1970)Google Scholar; Adler, and Margalith, , With Firmness in the Right: American Diplomatic Intervention on Behalf of Jews 1840–1945 (1946).Google Scholar

44 See, e.g., President McKinley’s special message re intervention in Cuba, , Apr. 9, 1898, 6 Moore, , Digest of International Law 220 (1906).Google Scholar

45 De Officio Humanis et Civis, 1682, Bk. I, Ch. VI (Carnegie tr., 37 (1927)).

46 Ibid., Ch. VIII (45), Bk. II, Ch. I (90).

47 Elementorum Jurisprudentiae Universalis, 1672, Bk. II, Obs. IV, paras. 5–6 (Carnegie tr., 242–43 (1931))» (italics added).

48 See Macalister-Smith, , International Humanitarian Assistance, esp. Ch. 6, 8 (1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also, Samuels, , “Organized Responses to Natural Disasters,” in Macdonald, et al., The International Law and Policy of Human Welfare 675, 680–84 (1978)Google Scholar; see also his “Humanitarian Relief in Man-Made Disasters,” 10 (1972) Canadian Yearbook of International Law 3.

49 Op. cit. supra note 47, Obs. V, paras. 21–22 (292–93).

50 Op. cit. supra note 45, Bk. II, Ch. XVI (140).

51 De Jure Naturae et Gentium, 1688, Bk. VIII, Ch. VI, para. 14 (Carnegie tr., 1307 (1934)).

52 Ibid., Bk. III, Ch. III, para. 5 (354–56), para. 11 (369).

53 De Indis Noviter Inventis, 1580, Sect. III, Proposition I, Proof 4, 2 (Carnegie tr., 151 (1917)).

54 Ibid., Proposition II, Proof 5, c. Digest, I, 1, 3 (153) (italics added).

55 Ecclesiasticus 17, 12.

56 Op. cit. supra note 53, Proposition IV, Fifth Lawful Title (159).

57 De Indis Sive De Jure Belli, 1580, Proposition I, Proof 7 (Carnegie tr., 167 (1917)).

58 De Triplici Virtute Theologica, 1621, De Charitate, DisputatioXIII,s. 4, para. 3, s. 5, para. 3 ( Carnegie, tr., Selections from Three Works 817, 824 (1944)).Google Scholar

59 Paras. 7–8 (827).

60 1613, Bk. Ill, Ch. XXIII, paras. 21–22 (700–2).

61 Le Droit des Gens, 1758, Intro., ss. 10–13, 16 (Carnegie tr., 5–7, italics added (1916)).

62 Ibid., Bk. II, Ch. I, ss. 3–8 (114–16, italics added).

63 See, e.g., re humanitarian intervention, Brownlie, , International Law and the Use of Force by States 340 (1963) Google Scholar; Szabo, et al., Socialist Concept of Human Rights 267 (1966).Google Scholar

64 Op. cit. supra note 61, s. 8(116).

65 Ibid., ss. 9–10 (116).

66 Ibid., ss. 13, 14 (117).

67 Ibid., s. 16 (117–18, italics added).

68 Ibid., Ch. IV, ss. 53–56, 62 (130–31, 134).

69 The belief that some states, such as Libya under Qadhafi, sponsor or support terrorism forms the basis for such actions as the U.S. sanctions against Libya in 1986, and the call for other states to take similar steps, as was done by Canada and the European Community, (1986) 25 Int’l Leg. Mat. 173–221.

70 See, e.g., G.A. Res. 2160 (XXI), 1966, recognizing “that peoples subjected to colonial oppression are entitled to seek and receive all support in their struggle. …” (italics added).

71 The Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, 1973 (1015 UNTS 244) condemns this as “a crime against humanity” (Art. 1 ).

72 The U.N. Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religious Belief, G.A. Res. 36/56, 1981, does not even go this far; see, however, supra note 43.

73 Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertractatum, 1764, Prologomena, s. 13, Ch. II, ss. 161–73 (Carnegie tr., 14,86–91) (1934)).

74 Ibid., s. 319n. (163).

75 Ibid., ss. 328, 330 (167, 169).

76 Ibid., ss. 344–45 (176–77).

77 Ibid., s. 330 (169).

78 Ibid., s. 348 (178–79).

79 Op. cit. supra note 61, Bk. I, Ch. XIX, s. 229 (92, italics added).

80 Ibid., Bk. II, Ch. VIII, s. 104, Bk. I, Ch. XIX, ss. 226, 229–31 (145, 91, 92, italics added).

81 Despite the pledges re reunification of families in the Helsinki Final Act ((1975) ’4 Int’l Leg. Mat. 1292, 1313–14), the Soviet Union virtually refuses to allow its citizens to leave, though other states are willing to receive them.

82 Loc. cit. supra note 6, Art. 14.

83 Op. cit., s. 231 (92).

84 Op. cit. supra note 34, Bk. II, Ch. XVII (230, italics added).

85 Op. cit. supra note 36, Bk. II, Ch. II, ss. 6–7, Ch. XXI, s. 2.5 (201, 530, italics added).

86 Op. cit. supra note 51, Bk. II, Ch. III, ss. 10, 9 (366, 365).

87 This seems to be the approach adopted by Canadian provinces to emigrants from Hong Kong.

88 This is a forerunner of the policy of some countries towards Hong Kong residents who have left that territory in view of its forthcoming reversion to Chinese sovereignty.

89 Cf. Lord Denning, supra note 89.

90 See infra, text to notes 120–26.

90a The Institutes of the Law of Nations, Vol. a, at 72 (1884) (italics added).

91 Wharton, , International Law (1836)Google Scholar — the standard ed. is the 8th, edited by Dana (1866).

92 Twiss, , The Law of Nations Considered as Independent Political Communities, Vol. 1, 176 (1884).Google Scholar

93 International Law, Vol. 1, 621–23 (italics in original) (1879).

94 See Adler and Margalith, op. cit. supra note 43.

95 Mackintosh, , Historv of England 127 (1853).Google Scholar

96 Hall, , Treatise on International Law, 4th ed. 302–4 (1895)Google Scholar (Higgins ed., 34244 (1924), italics added).

97 International Law, Parti, Peace 318–21 (1910).

98 6 Moore, Digest of International Law 32 (1906) (italics added). Roosevelt cited the massacre of the Jews in Kishinef (Adler and Margalith, op. cit. supra note 43, at 261 et seq. and oppression against the Armenians, 5 Moore, op. cit., at 833).

99 Stowell, , International Law 350–1 (1930).Google Scholar

100 See, e.g., Thomas, and Thomas, , Non-intervention: The Law and Its Import in the Americas (1955) Google Scholar; Kane, , Civil Strife in Latin America, Ch. 3, 4 (1972) Google Scholar; Vincent, , Non-intervention and International Order, esp. Ch. 6 (1974).Google Scholar

101 Stowell, op. cit. supra note 99, at 349. See Filartiga v. Pena-Irala (1980), 630 F. 2d 876 for a controversial decision by the 2d Circuit Court, holding that an alien could recover in the U.S. for a tort — torture — committed abroad by a member of that alien’s government: “Indeed, for the purposes of civil liability, the torturer has become — like the pirate and the slave trader before him — hostis humani generis, an enemy of all mankind” (890).

102 Brownlie, , International Law and the Use of Force by States 48 (1963).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

103 Gen. Ass. Res. 2625 (XXV), 1970.

104 (1975) ’4 Int’l Leg. Mat. 1292, 1293–97.

103 Smith, H.A., The Listener, Jan. 36, 1938, 183.Google Scholar

104 Toynbee, , Survey of International Affairs 1933 171 (1934).Google Scholar

107 H.M.S.O. Cmd. 6120.

108 Judgment (1946), H.M.S.O. Cmd. 6964, 62; (1947) 41 Am. J. Int’l Law 172, 345.

109 Ibid., 65, 249; see text notes 39–40 supra.

110 Dumont, , Corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens, Part 3, 88 (1736).Google Scholar

111 I (Parry) C.T.S. 314.

112 65 C.T.S. 259.

113 153 C.T.S. 172.

114 5 Verzijl International Law in Historical Perspective 193 (1972) ; see also, Robinson, , Were the Minorities Treaties a Failure? (1943).Google Scholar

115 See, e.g., Interpretation of Peace Treaties, [1950] I.G.J. Rep. 65, 221.

116 1966, 999 UNTS 171.

117 E.g., France, Re Jean Borcaut, 13 Les Causes Célèbres 492 (1747) ; England, Smith v. Brown (1705), 20 Howell’s St. Tr. 666, Somersett’s case (1772), 20 ibid., 1.

118 Opinion of Law Officers, Oct. 14, 1875, 2 McNair, , International Law Opinions 92, 95 (1956).Google Scholar

119 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave and Practices Similar to Slavery, 266 UNTS 3.

120 Montevideo Convention on Political Asylum, 1933, 6 Hudson, , International Legislation 607,Google Scholar Art. 3 — the definition has not been affected by later Conventions.

121 Res. a312 (XXII), Art. 3.

122 Convention on the Status of Refugees, 1951, and Protocol of 1967, 189 UNTS 137, 606 ibid., 267; see, e.g., Green, , “Refugees and Refugee Status: Causes and Treatment in Historico-Legal Perspective,” (1987) 13 Thesaurus Acroasium 537–614 Google Scholar; Goodwin-Gill, , The Refugee in International Law (1983).Google Scholar See also Canadian Bills C-55, C-84, 1987.

123 See text to notes 23–29 supra.

124 Soviet Constitution 1946, Art. 29 (U.N. Yearbook on Human Rights 1946, 317); ’977 Constitution, Art. 38 (17 Blaustein, Constitutions of the Countries of the World) ; German Democratic Republic, Constitution, 1949, Art. 10 (U.N. Yearbook on Human Rights 1949, 73).

125 Immigration and Nationality Act, s. 20(a) (7), Dept. of State, Digest of U.S. Practice in International Law 1973, 103; see also, ibid., 1977, 139–40.

126 Art. 16 (2), U.N. Yearbook on Human Rights 1949, 80.

127 U.N., Yearbook on Human Rights 1953, 163.

128 See Rosenne, , “La loi israélienne sur la nationalité 5712–1952 et la loi du Retour 5710–1950,” (1954) 81 Journal du Droit International 2 Google Scholar; Bar-Yaacov, , Dual Nationality, Ch. 14 (1961).Google Scholar

129 See Green, , “Rescue at Entebbe: Legal Aspects,” (1976), 6 Israel Y.B. Human Rights 312.Google Scholar

130 See Att.-Gen. of Israel v. Eichmann (1961/62), 36 I.L.R. 5, 277; Green, , “The Maxim nullum crimen sine lege and the Eichmann Trial,” (1962) 38 Brit. Y.B. Int’l L. 457, 463–68.Google Scholar

131 Agreement re Issue of Certificates of Identity to Russian Refugees (1922), 13 LNTS 237.

132 1930, 179 LNTS 115, 5 Hudson, , International Legislation 387,Google Scholar respectively.

133 360 UNTS 117, 989 UNTS 175 (this Convention only came into force in Dec. 1975).

134 See, e.g., International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966, Art. 2 (1), 999 UNTS 171.

135 European, 1950 (813 UNTS 222) ; American, 1969 (9 I.L.M. 673) ; African, 1981 (21 ibid., 58).

136 1957 298 UNTS 11, as amended.

137 See text to notes 33–39 supra.

138 The Times (London) Nov. 30, 1985.

139 Ibid., Jan. 2, 1986.

140 Ibid., Jan. 27, 1987.

141 Ibid., re U.K. attitude to Sri Lankans and Iranians.

142 Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (Bernadotte), [1949] I.C.J. Rep. 4.

143 See, e.g., Convention on Certain Questions on Conflict of Nationality Laws, and Protocol re Military Obligations in Certain Cases of Double Nationality ( 1930) 179 LNTS 89, 178 ibid., 227; see also Bar-Yaacov, , Dual Nationality, Ch. 5, 10 (1961).Google Scholar